The relative pose between the projector and screen in a phase-measuring deflectometry (PMD) setup can result in perspective distortion and intensity errors in the projected fringe patterns. These problems degrade the sinusoidal characteristics of the fringe patterns, thus increasing phase, slope, and height errors in the PMD measurement. To overcome these issues, inverse perspective distortion and intensity modification algorithms were developed and applied to computer-generated fringe patterns before projection. The inverse perspective distortion matrices were obtained using a single image of the projected grid distortion target. The pixel intensities in the generated fringe patterns were modified using the relationship between the generated and captured pixel intensity values in grayscale images of uniform intensity. Experiments were conducted to measure the surface topographies of spherical concave and convex mirrors using a monoscopic PMD setup. Based on the experimental results, the root-mean-squared (RMS) intensity and phase errors in the projected sinusoidal fringe patterns were reduced by about 90% after using the modified fringe patterns compared to the original fringe patterns. When comparing the measured and the theoretical heightmaps, the results in PMD measurement showed an 8% and a 14% reduction of the RMS height errors in concave and convex heightmaps, respectively. The effectiveness of the algorithms in improving the accuracy of projector-based PMD measurement was demonstrated successfully.
A circular grating moiré method is proposed for sensing the tilt magnitude (θ) and tilt direction (α) for tilt about two orthogonal axes. A device consisting of a pair of fixed (upper) and semifloating (lower) circular gratings inside a water-filled acrylic container has been developed. The moiré pattern images for tilt angles ranging from 0 deg to 7 deg are captured using a webcam, processed by low-pass filtering and transformed from Cartesian-to-polar coordinates. This is followed by column-wise fringe center localization using polynomial fitting, unwrapping of the extracted fringe centers, and sine-curve fitting. The peak-to-valley height (hpv) and phase shift (φ) of the unwrapped and fringe centers were determined from the fitted sine curve. The relationship between hpv and θ is found to be parabolic with the y-intercept at its minimum point, whereas that between φ and α is linear. From the tilt sensing experiments, the mean absolute errors in θ and α are found to be 0.16 deg and 3.1 deg, respectively, with uncertainty of ±0.027 deg and ±0.5 deg at 95% confidence level. The proposed device is capable of sensing tilt magnitude and direction along two orthogonal tilt planes and can potentially be applied in landslide monitoring.
The moiré effect has been used in high-accuracy positioning and alignment systems for decades. Various methods have been proposed to identify and locate moiré fringes in order to relate the pattern information to dimensional and displacement measurement. These methods can be broadly categorized into manual interpretation based on human knowledge and image processing based on computational algorithms. An artificial neural network (ANN) is proposed to locate moiré fringe centers within circular grating moiré patterns. This ANN approach aims to mimic human decision making by eliminating complex mathematical computations or time-consuming image processing algorithms in moiré fringe recognition. A feed-forward backpropagation ANN architecture was adopted in this work. Parametric studies were performed to optimize the ANN architecture. The finalized ANN approach was able to determine the location of the fringe centers with average deviations of 3.167 pixels out of 200 pixels (≈1.6%) and 6.166 pixels out of 200 pixels (≈3.1%) for real moiré patterns that lie within and outside the training intervals, respectively. In addition, a reduction of 43.4% in the computational time was reported using the ANN approach. Finally, the applicability of the ANN approach for moiré fringe center determination was confirmed.
A liquid-filled diaphragm (LFD) lens system that uses image feedback for automatic focus control has been designed and developed. The edge slope width (ESW) of the pixel intensity profile across a binary target was selected as the focus measure parameter. An algorithm was developed to achieve single- and dual-direction autofocus control. An improved autofocus method, which is based on the error between the expected ESW value for a focused image and the ESW value for the current (unfocused) image, was introduced to improve the performance of the system. An empirical equation of the focus measure error was used to predict the number of autofocus operation steps required to approach a near-focus region. A stepper motor was used for actuating a syringe-driven pump mechanism that injects or withdraws fluid into (or out of) the fluid lens chamber. The lens diaphragm was made of polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) polymer that covers the fluid chamber. A monochrome CCD camera was attached to the LFD lens to capture live images of the target. The autofocus experiments carried out using the new differential error-based algorithm proved the viability of the algorithm in determining the near-focus region. A maximum reduction of time operation was also recorded to be 40 s in comparison with the normal autofocus algorithm.
The moire method has been extensively studied in the past and applied in various engineering applications. Several
techniques are available for generating the moire fringes in these applications, which include moire interferometry,
projection moire, shadow moire, moire deflectometry etc. Most of these methods use the superposition of linear gratings
to generate the moire patterns. The use of non-linear gratings, such as circular, radial and elongated gratings has received
less attention from the research community. The potential of
non-linear gratings in engineering measurement has been
realized in a limited number of applications, such as rotation measurement, measurement of linear displacement,
measurement of expansion coefficients of materials and measurement of strain distribution. In this work, circular
gratings of different pitch were applied to the sensing and measurement of crack displacement in concrete structures.
Gratings of pitch 0.50 mm and 0.55 mm were generated using computer software and attached to two overlapping acrylic
plates that were bonded to either side of the crack. The resulting moire patterns were captured using a standard digital
camera and compared with a set of reference patterns generated using a precision positioning stage. Using several image
pre-processing stages, such as filtering and morphological operations, and pattern matching the magnitude displacements
along two orthogonal axes can be detected with a resolution of 0.05 mm.
This paper presents a technique for detecting edges of a multi-surface object placed in a background having grayscale intensity same as that of the object surface, i.e. in a homogeneous background. The various surfaces of the object also have the same intensities. For these types of objects an intensity gradient does not exist across the image and thus common intensity based edge detectors such as Sobel, Prewitt and Canny are unable to detect the edges successfully. In the proposed technique, sinusoidally-coded structured light is projected obliquely onto the object surface that is viewed from a normal position. The different illumination and viewing directions cause the projected light pattern (fringes) to break at the edges of the object due to the presence of a height difference between the various surfaces of the object and its background. By locating the positions of the intensity break points in the image it is possible to locate the various edges of the object. The main drawbacks of this technique is that the accuracy of the edge detection is greatly affected by noise. However, by using the phase-shift method and processing the resulting phase image to extract edges it was found that the accuracy is almost unaffected by the presence noise. The algorithms for the proposed edge detection technique were developed based on simulated images and later applied to real images with suitable modifications.
Holographic interferometry and electronic speckle pattern interferometry (ESPI) have both been used to measure the radial expansion of a heated diesel engine piston. A simple "mirror" concept introduced enables simultaneous measurement of in-plane and out-of-plane components of displacements. This concept was verified by using a cantilever and the results agreed to within 5% of the predictions of deflection theory. ESPI and holographic fringes on two views of the piston were recorded on a single frame of a CCD camera. Phase-stepped ESPI fringes were analyzed to obtain two phase maps of different sensitivities on a single video frame. Comparison between holographic and ESPI results were made and possible reasons for the smaller values obtained using ESP1 are proposed. A critical comparison of the two techniques shows that holography has the advantage of enabling study of a 2000 rise in a single stage due to its high quality fringes. ESPI limits the temperature rise to 5°C because of its poorer fringe definition and hence displacement from four stages has to be added vectorially.
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