Robust and efficient optical coupling from laser-to-fiber and from fiber-to-detector is an important consideration for
loss limited optical data links. Standard chip scale package process flow used by the semiconductor industry is based
upon machine vision assisted "pick-and-place" die attach and wirebonding operations. To realize scalable
heterogeneous integration of optical elements, mass production must be done within the framework of existing
manufacturing equipment and avoid active opto-mechanical alignment steps.
This publication reports on the performance of a set of a refractive, hemi-aspheric, nonimaging optical concentrators
that are simple and amenable to standard package integration flow with passive alignment. A set of lenses are made by
single-point diamond-turning and injection molding of unfilled polyetherimide, which is relatively transparent at the
link operating wavelength of 850 nm. The goal of the design is to balance the absolute coupling at optimum alignment
with wide margins for angular and linear misalignment.
In this work we report on a non-imaging optical concentrator for high-speed polymer optical fiber (POF), which has
applications in chip-to-chip, consumer display, and backplane data transport. High-speed operation places demands on
the ability of coupling from large-core media to small apertures typical of 10 Gbps optoelectronics. Design and
fabrication of concentrators made by single point diamond turning and injection molding will be discussed, and
comparison of experimental data to simulation will show good coupling efficiency with a wide tolerance to fiber
misalignment.
KEYWORDS: Tolerancing, Monte Carlo methods, Phase only filters, Waveguides, Optical simulations, Optical fibers, Optical alignment, Optical design, Received signal strength, Mechanical efficiency
Our work discusses the tolerance modeling of an optical fiber that is inserted into a cylindrical alignment bore. We note
that some commercial optical simulation software suites have the mechanical tolerance operands entered in Cartesian
coordinates and if radial variation is entered as simple X and Y de-centering, there arises a kind of "corner condition"
where fiber in the opto-mechanical model is offset more than is possible in the physical implementation resulting in an
overly-conservative estimate of the worst-case coupling efficiency. Approaches to avoid this over estimation are
presented and discussed.
A novel technique is presented for the computation of the polarization transfer function of optical assemblies with finite
reflection coefficients, birefringence, and other parasitic imperfections. The methodology is directly applicable to
optical data storage modeling, such as CD/DVD recording optics and the physical recording process.
Formed in January 1995, WEST is a DARPA-supported consortium investigating technologies for implementing add-drop and cross-connect switches operating at 10 Gbit/s. Using wavelength division multiplexing (WDM), each fiber supports 40 Gbit/s (4 by 10 Gbit/s) aggregate bandwidth for SONET/SDH operation. Consortium members include Rockwell Corporation, Ortel Corporation, UCSB, UCSD, UCLA, and Caltech/JPL.
Optical networks and their requirement for ever-increasing data rates provide a continuing challenge for electronic circuits. Here we review a number of circuits, implemented in heterojunction bipolar transistors (HBTs), and technologies that have been developed for 40 Gbit/s optical interconnection. These approaches include, multielement arrays for freespace, or guided transmission, wavelength division multiplexing (WDM) of several channels onto different wavelengths, and circuits that attempt to realized 40 Gbit/sec modulation rates directly by time division multiplexing (TDM). The circuit design challenges presented by these various approaches to 40 Gbit transmission are covered as well.
We will report on an 8-channel laser driver circuit intended to drive arrays of Distributed Feedback (DFB) lasers. These have been incorporated into transmitter modules operating at both 155 Mbit/sec and 2.488 Gbit/sec. Considerable power, cost and packaging savings can be achieved by this approach because the small driver size allows direct coupling of the driver and laser in compact modules, which also reduces the fiber alignment complexity. The peak current delivered to each laser is 60 mA; of this, up to 30 mA can be a DC bias current with the modulation current adjustable up to 30 mA peak-to-peak. The circuit is designed for an input signal of 300 mV differential into 50 Ohms. The modulation currents are separately adjustable for each channel. The circuit uses a differential signal path to achieve good common mode rejection to reduce crosstalk. The drivers were fabricated on a 500 micrometers spacing to match the DFB laser spacing, and care was taken to minimize capacitive coupling and crosstalk between channels. The power dissipation at maximum drive is 2.3 W with all 8 channels active.
This paper reviews recent results for clock recovery circuits operating at speeds in excess of 1 Gbit/sec or realized as multichannel arrays. The emphasis is on Synchronous Optical NETwork (SONET) type systems, their requirements, and the effect of the clock recovery circuits on system performance. Clock recovery approaches include filter based, phase-lockcd-loops, and all-optical methods.
Recent progress in the integration of lasers and detectors with transistor amplifiers to make optoelectronic integrated circuit (OEIC) versions of transmitter and receiver circuits is reviewed. Comparison of OEIC receivers based on the electronic devices used is presented along with other novel and notable recent achievements in this field.
To implement high-bandwidth optical analog or digital communication links based on optical modulators, ultrahigh performance modulator driver amplifiers are required. Design considerations for such amplifiers are discussed here. Designs are significantly different than for laser driver amplifiers. For modulator drivers, an emitter follower output stage is appropriate. Active pull-down circuitry is beneficial to reduce power dissipation in a digital driver. Inductive tuning is beneficial to extend frequency response. Flip-chip mounting is beneficial to reduce bonding parasitic capacitance. Examples are given for driver designs for 10Gbit/s digital applications, and for 20GHz analog links, employing GaAs/AlGaAs HBT technology.
Advances in high performance computers and signal processing systems have led to parallel
system architectures. The main limitation in achieving the performance expected of these
parallel systems has been the realization of an efficient means to interconnect many
processors into a effective parallel system. Electronic interconnections have proved
cumbersome, costly and ineffective. The Optical Fiber Crossbar Switch (OFCS) is a compact
low power, multi-gigahertz bandwidth multi-channel switch which can be used in large scale
computer and telecommunication applications. The switch operates in the optical domain
using GaAs semiconductor lasers to transmit wideband multiple channel optical data over
fiber optic cables. Recently, a 32 X 32 crossbar switching system was completed and
demonstrated. Error free performance was obtained at a data bandwidth of 410 MBPS, using
a silicon switch IC. The switch can be completely reconfigured in less than 50 nanoseconds
under computer control. The fully populated OFCS has the capability to handle 12.8 gigabits
per second (GBPS) of data while switching this data over 32 channels without the loss of a
single bit during switching.
GaAs IC technology has now progressed to the point that 16 X 16 GaAs based crossbar
switch Ics are available which have increased the data bandwidth capability to 2.4 GBPS.
The present optical interfaces are integrated GaAs transmitter drivers, GaAs lasers, and
integrated GaAs optical receivers with data bandwidths exceeding 2.4 GBPS. A system using
all Ill-V switching and optoelectronic components is presently under development for both
NASA and DoD programs. The overall system is designed to operate at 1.3 GBPS.
It is expected that these systems will find wide application in high capacity computing
systems based on parallel microprocessor architecture which require high data bandwidth
communication between processors. The OFCS will also have application in commercial
optical telecommunication systems where high bandwidth communication has already
exceeded 2 GBPS. There are also critical requirements for a secure fiber optic switching
system in military Command Control Communication (C3) situations.
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