KEYWORDS: Receivers, Error analysis, Free space optics, Free space optical communications, Turbulence, Optical engineering, Adaptive optics, Signal to noise ratio, Signal detection, Signal attenuation
In this work, a receiver architecture for the detention of on-off-keying (OOK) signals using adaptive signal estimation and threshold setting for free-space optical communications is investigated. It is assumed that the received signal is impaired by channel fading, modeled using Málaga (M) distribution, and an imperfect pointing acquisition. In OOK communications, knowledge of the received signal is required to set the optimum receiver threshold. To that end, a linear estimation technique is utilized to estimate the combined impact of the residual pointing error and channel fading. The performance of the resulting receiver is evaluated and is compared with those of a receiver in which the channel and pointing impairments are ignored and with a receiver in which the channel and pointing impacts are replaced by the statistical averages of those impairments. It is shown that, for reasonable system parameters, the proposed receiver offers a significant improvement in performance in terms of the overall bit error rate (BER) when compared with its alternatives. For a scenario in which a significant pointing error is present, it is observed that channel estimation does not offer a benefit in terms of the overall BER.
A subcarrier nulling technique based on Reed–Solomon (RS) encoding and nonlinear distortion measurement in orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing (OFDM)-based visible-light communication (VLC) is proposed. The effect of nonlinear clipping imposed by the low dynamic range in an OFMD-VLC leads to a non-uniform distortion on the data-bearing OFDM subcarriers. This distortion combined with the low bandwidth modulation of the light-emitting diode could limit the throughput of the VLC system. The proposed technique employs the clipping distortion to adaptively select and null the group of subcarriers that are responsible for the peak values in the OFDM symbol. Using the frequency domain RS block code, the OFDM transmitter is provided with the flexibility to find and remove the accumulated in-band distortion anywhere within the OFDM frame without the need for prior subcarrier reservation. With the help of log-likelihood ratio detection, nulled subcarriers are estimated at the receiver, and the RS codewords with erasure are recovered and decoded without using side information. This technique mitigates the error vector magnitude and reduces the peak to average power ratio in an OFDM-VLC under severe clipping conditions with reduced complexity. The proposed technique bit error rate performance is studied and compared with traditional techniques in a VLC system with clipping constraint.
In this paper, the problem of optimizing the performance of a free-space optical system with large field of view (FOV) focal plane array is addressed. A large FVO detector is desired when beam tilt, large pointing inaccuracies, or other impairments leading to uncertainties in the angle of arrival of the beam are present. For such an arrangement, when we consider a large aperture size, which results in a small diffraction-limited FOV, a large number of photo-detectors in the array are exposed to background radiation only. In addition, in adaptive optics system without a wave-front sensor (WFS), one has to contend with the same issue when large FOV system with small diffraction-limited FOV is considered. Hence, detection strategies to deal with the excess background noise in this scenario is of interest in this paper. We assume here that the receiver is utilizing a recently proposed technique to identify the presence and the location of the beam footprint in the focal plane, thereby reducing the “area” of consideration in the focal plane to a subset of the total photodetectors. It is shown here that, when the proposed receiver is utilized, one can expect an improvement in the overall bit error rate of several orders of magnitude as compared with the standard array detector.
In this study, we examine the problem of array detectors for free-space optical (FSO) communication systems when the optical field is detected using an array of detectors in the presence of large background noise and non-negligible pointing error. It is assumed that the spatial pointing errors are due to beam tilt and/or platform vibration. We propose and study a nonlinear detection mechanism for processing the outputs of the photodetectors (PD). The proposed strategy performs photodetector array combining that favors the PDs with non-negligible signal strengths, which are proportional to the spatial characteristics of the beam. Provided that the spatial profiles of the optical beams in single and multiple-spatial-mode scenarios are non-uniform, uniform aperture detector arrays will provide only a suboptimal performance. That is, the spatial feature of the detector is assumed to match the spatial feature of the received beam. This principle mirrors the concept of matched filtering in time domain for the detection of signals buried in additive white Gaussian noise. Performance in this paper is established in terms of the overall bit error rate for direct-detection receivers. It is shown that the proposed detection strategy results in a sizeable gain in performance in terms of reducing the bit error rate by an order of magnitude for all conditions, including when the pointing error is substantial.
In this paper, the potential of hybrid automatic-repeat request (HARQ) algorithm in enhancing the performance of a free- space optical (FSO) communication system, which is impaired by weak turbulence and non-negligible residual pointing error, is explored. In particular, the FSO system is assumed to use orthogonal Hermite-Gaussian (HG) beam patterns to exploit spatial multiplexing of optical radiation. Furthermore, it is assumed that a direct-detection mechanism is utilized at the receiver and that the optical radiation is modulated using pulse-position modulation (PPM). Via analytical results and numerical analysis, it is demonstrated that HARQ not only overcomes the impact of spatial error, but also offers a means of achieving near error free communications provided that the delay associate with HARQ can be tolerated. In general, HARQ offers several orders of magnitude improvement in performance.
The problem of spatial tracking for Hermite–Gaussian free-space optical (HG-FSO) links is addressed. Since HG waveforms allow for the simultaneous presence of orthogonal spatial channels, FSO-HG has the potential of offering a considerable increase in system capacity as compared with the standard FSO systems. To harness this capacity gain, the problem of spatial tracking becomes of paramount importance as the presence of spatial error significantly impacts the orthogonality of the HG waveforms. We, then, consider spatial tracking using a standard quad-detector arrangement and assume that the background noise and/or receiver thermal noise are large enough to warrant a Gaussian detection statistics. The performance is assessed in terms of the probability density function of the spatial tracking error for HG order of up to 3. In assessing performance, it is assumed that the impact of the cross-talk among the spatial modes is negligible under the steady-state condition. Numerical results are presented to assess the viability of the tracking loop. Numerical results show that among the HG waveforms with orders ranging from 1 to 3, the second-order HG waveform offers the best tracking performance and, hence, must be selected for the purpose of tracking in HG-FSO systems.
The probability density function of the intensity of a Hermite–Gaussian (HG) beam is studied. It is assumed that the beam is used in a free-space optics communication link or laser ranging system. In particular, it is assumed that the captured optical radiation pattern assumes an HG beam intensity profile and that the beam is impaired by the residual pointing error cause by the spatial tracking loop responsible for tracking the atmospheric beam wander and platform sway. The mean and variance of the beam profile are also obtained to underscore the impact of spatial jitter on the overall beam profile.
Performance of quad-APD spatial tracking loop (STL) in the presence of scintillation is investigated for freespace
optical (FSO) channels impaired by optical turbulence. The atmospheric turbulence is assumed to follow
the weak turbulence model, described by Rytov approximation, which in turn suggests log-normal statistics for
the received optical signal intensity. It is assumed that the pointing error in large part is due to atmospheric
wander and that the correlation time of the beam wander is comparable to the correlation time of the amplitude
variations due to amplitude scintillation. Computationally-efficient extensions of a recently proposed spatial
tracking model are investigated, resulting in two alternative implementation. The proposed algorithms enable
one to adjust the gain of the tracking loop, resulting in an adaptive bandwidth adjustment scenario in the
presence of correlated fading. The performance of the proposed tracking loops along with that of the standard
tracking loop are assessed and compared via simulation in terms of the mean square tracking error (MSTE).
Simulation results reveal the effectiveness of the computationally-efficient algorithms proposed here in reducing
the MSTE as compared with the standard tracking loop, while offering a realizable solution as compared to the
tracking loop suggested by the previous study on the subject.
In this paper, the concept of Chase Combining (CC) is extended to photon communications systems. It is
assumed that intensity modulation (IM) along with on-off-keying (OOK) schemes are utilized to generate signals
at the transmitter. At the receiver, direct-detection (DD) mechanisms are utilized to recover the transmitted
signal. In particular, it is assumed that the optical detection is achieved via an avalanche photo-detector (APD).
It is assumed that the photon channel is impacted by clear-air (log-normal) turbulence and that the major
impairments of the receiver include receiver thermal noise, shot noise due to optical detection, background
radiation, and random gain distortion caused by APD. Performance is established in terms of bit error rate
(BER) using analytical and simulation means. The numerical results demonstrate that CC technique offers a
significant improvement in performance at a cost of increased hardware complexity.
Receiver architectures are suggested for the detection of optical field using avalanche photodiode (APD) arrays. It is assumed that optical field is modulated using either binary pulse-position modulated (BPPM) or on-off keying (OOK), and that direct-detection is used to recover the optical signal. It is further assumed that the optical field is exposed to weak atmospheric turbulence. Receivers motivated by the maximum a posteriori (MAP) rule for OOK and BPPM communications are suggested. Due to the complexity of the suggested receivers, suboptimum combining schemes are presented. In one scheme, a simple summation of the output of APDs is utilized to render a decision. In alternate schemes, for BPPM and OOK scenarios, weighting mechanisms that combine the output of detectors in an optimum manner are suggested. For binary PPM signaling, the proposed weighting mechanism maximizes the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR). For OOK signaling, the weighting mechanism is an improvised optimization of the linear summation of the outputs of the APDs. Simulation results are presented to underscore the superiority of the weighted combining methods as compared to the simple summation algorithm.
Receiver architectures are suggested for avalanche photodiode (APD) array detection of binary pulse-position modulated (PPM) in direct-detection free-space optical (FSO) communication systems. It is assumed that the received signal intensity is large enough so that the integrated currents at the outputs of APD detectors may be modelled accurately as Gaussian random variables. Receivers motivated by the maximum a posteriori (MAP) rule are suggested for APDs operating in Gaussian regime. Due to the complexity of the suggested receivers, suboptimum combining schemes are presented. In one scheme, a simple summation of the output of APDs is utilized to render decision. In alternate schemes, a weighting mechanism that combines the output of detectors in an optimum manner is suggested. The proposed weighting mechanism maximized signal-to-noise ratio (SNR). It is assumed that the signal intensity is impaired by optical scintillation and that the signal intensity is estimated at the receiver. Simulation and analytical results are presented to underscore the superiority of the weighted combining methods as compared to the simple summation algorithm, and to compare the performance of the optimum receivers with the linear receivers suggested here.
In this paper, we present receiver architectures for post-detection combining of multiple transmitted packets in direct-detection (DD) photon channels. It is assumed that the optical signal is intensity modulated (IM) and that the receiver operates under a shot-noise limit condition. Furthermore, it is assumed that the channel is free of atmospheric turbulence or turbulence is negligible enough so that it can be assumed away. An automatic-repeat-request (ARQ) mechanism is utilized with a time-out feature of M retransmissions. Maximum a posteriori (MAP) rule is considered here to arrive at optimal combining mechanism for the above scenarios. Performance is established in terms of average delay and probability of packet loss. Furthermore, the probability of successful transmission of a packet in q (<M) attempts is obtained. It is shown that the proposed technique offers a significant reduction in the number of attempts for successful transmission of a packet as compared with the conventional method.
In this paper, the performance of quad-APD spatial tracking loop (STL)in the presence of scintillation is studied for a frozen atmosphere turbulent model for free-space communications (FSO). The atmospheric turbulence responsible for the beam scintillation is assumed to follow the weak turbulence model, described by Rytov approximation, which in turn suggests log-normal statistics for the received optical signal intensity. It is assumed that pointing error in large part is due to atmospheric wander and that the correlation time of the beam wander is comparable to the correlation time of the amplitude variations due to amplitude scintillation. Provided recently reported estimation strategies, a new model for spatial tracking is proposed where estimates of channel coefficient are used to adjust the gain of the tracking loop, enabling an adaptive bandwidth adjustment in the presence of correlated fading. The performance of the proposed loop as well as that of the standard tracking loop are assessed and compared via simulation in terms of the mean square tracking error (MSTE).
The bit error rate of direct-detection, avalanche photodiode (APD) based free-space optical (FSO) communication systems is studied. The system of interest utilizes pulse-position modulation (PPM) and is subjected to scintillation due to optical turbulence. A weak turbulence (clear-air) scenario is considered for which the received signal intensity may be modelled as a log-normal random process. To arrive at the desired results, it is assumed that the system utilizes binary PPM (BPPM) modulation scheme. Furthermore, it is assumed that the receiver thermal noise is non-negligible and that the average signal intensity is large enough to justify a Gaussian approximation at the receiver. Numerical results are presented for the BPPM case to shed light on the impact of turbulence on the overall performance.
In this paper, we present the impact of optical turbulence on the performance of coherent optical communications which employs multi-wavelength plane wave optical radiation. Performance is assessed in terms of the achievable signal-to-noise (SNR) ratio as a function of the receiver aperture size. It is demonstrated that the use of multi-wavelength radiation improves the effective SNR. Furthermore, it is shown that the onset of SNR saturation fue to an increase in the aperture size is impacted by the use of multi-wavelength radiation.
The performance of a free-space optical (FSO) communication system is investigated when communication is established via a short-range, turbulent optical channel. The system under investigation utilizes on-off-keying (OOK) modulation combined with direct-detection to establish a duplex communication link. It is further assumed that the optical beam obeys a Gaussian profile. The received signal is detected using a p-i-n diode which is followed by a trans-impedance amplifier (TIA), limiting amplifier, and a clock/data recovery subsystem. Furthermore, it is assumed that optical front-end provides a relatively large aperture so that the impact of turbulence is somewhat mitigated and that the channel/system parameters result in a weak turbulent condition. The performance of the proposed system for a bit error rate of 10-9 in the absence of forward error correction (FEC) is assessed in terms of probability of fade (PF), average number of fades per second (FPS), mean fade duration (MFD), mean-guard-to-mean-burst (MGMB) ratio, and mean time between fades (MTBF).
M-ary pulse position modulation (PPM) has received considerable attention for direct-detection photon communications over unguided channels. The analysis generally assumes that the signaling set is orthogonal. However the orthogonality of the signaling set will be destroyed by the finite area and bandwidth of optical detectors, resulting in severe intersymbol interference. This paper presents the analysis of a trellis-based pulse position modulation (T-PPM) scheme for photon communications with non-rectangular pulses. The novelty of the scheme includes the use of a set partitioning methodology to increase the minimum distance using a simple convolutional encoder. The Viterbi algorithm is used at the receiver to separate the signaling set as part of the demodulation process. It has been shown that T-PPM will restore performance losses due to reduced peak intensity during the detection process. Furthermore, for a large range of background radiation levels and when an APD detector is used, the average number of photons per information bit for T- PPM is smaller than that of the regular PPM. Numerical examples show that for a symbol error rate of 10-3 when the received pulses extend over 4 PPM slots, the average laser energy per symbol for 256-ary T-PPM could be reduced by as much as 2 dB.
Expressions for the probability density function (pdf) of optical signal intensity in an optical communication channel impaired by motion-induced beam jitter and turbulence are derived. It is assumed that the optical beam possesses a Gaussian profile, generated by a pulsed laser, and that the beam scintillation is governed by either log-normal distribution for weak turbulence or K distribution for moderate to strong turbulence in the saturation region. For extreme propagation distances or very strong turbulence, a negative exponential pdf is used to model turbulence. For the aforementioned beam scintillation statistics, approximate pdf's for the signal intensity are also obtained and the conditions for which these approximations seem to be valid are also discussed.
The objectives of the CEMERLL experiment are to measure the signal enhancement obtained in a two way laser propagation link using laser guidestar adaptive optics from the Earth to the Moon using the Apollo retroreflector arrays, and to predict and verify the resulting signal strength and variability. A theory is presented for the probability density functions of the laser link by combining multiple effects of the: 1) compensated laser uplink through turbulence, 2) reflection from the lunar retroreflector array, 3) passage through turbulence on the downlink, aperture averaging by the receiving telescope, and 4) signal detection with a photovoltaic detector. The most important element in the chain is the uplink propagation, all other effects propagation effects modify only the mean number of photons of this two way link, and do not significantly change the probability density functions of the uplink laser beam. The resulting probability density functions are defined by parameters that include the effective number of scatterers, the average intensities in the specular and diffuse portions of the beam, and the beam jittering effect of using a laser guidestar. Using intensity moments derived from the far field propagation, performance data on the laser guidestar adaptive optics system, and approximations for higher order moments, the parameters of these distributions can be numerically evaluated from experimental conditions. These show a widely diffuse speckle pattern for the uncompensated beam, and a similar shaped but long tailed distribution for the compensated beam. Uncorrected tilt effects cause the well compensated beam to randomly jitter and results in an intensity distribution where there are some 'hits' of high intensity light, but more frequently there is a portion of the beam side lobes which illuminate the corner cube array. A separate tip-tilt correction using either an illuminated lunar feature or the return pulses themselves would mitigate this effect.
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