Under a contract with the Air Force Phillips Laboratory, two proposed methods for enhancing spectral
content of hyperspectral remote sensing data are discussed. The first method would use diffuse sky light in
which specular solar reflection from the 1st surface is absent. Characteristic material emission spectra would
be observed from a much wider range of view angles than for a sunlit scene. In diffuse light, the observed
polarization is reduced in comparison to the sun lit case, because the non-polarized volume radiance is
increased relative to the 1st surface scatter. Hence, diffraction grating artifacts due to polarized inputs are
reduced. In a second method, a polarizer positioned in front of a hyperspectral imager, is shown to enhance
spectral contrast by reducing polarized 1st surface reflections in forward scatter directions. A polarizer of
known orientation improves diffraction grating performance because changes in the polarization dependent
grating efficiency can be accounted for through calibration. In support of these methods, polarimetric
bidirectional reflectance distribution function (BRDF) data from the visible grating spectral polarimeter
(VGSP)1 with wavelength range (375nm to 900nm) is presented. This data indicates that angular scatter or
the BRDF from many outdoor materials may be decomposed into a polarimetric 1st surface single scatter
component with little spectral variation and a diffuse or multiple scattered component having a significant
spectral dependence.
Recent developments for long-wave infrared (LWIR) imaging polarimeters include incorporating a microgrid polarizer array onto the focal plane array. Inherent advantages over other classes of polarimeters include rugged packaging, inherent alignment of the optomechanical system, and temporal synchronization that facilitates instantaneous acquisition of both thermal and polarimetric information. On the other hand, the pixel-to-pixel instantaneous field-of-view error that is inherent in the microgrid strategy leads to false polarization signatures. Because of this error, residual pixel-to-pixel variations in the gain-corrected responsivity, the noise-equivalent input, and variations in the pixel-to-pixel micropolarizer performance are extremely important. The degree of linear polarization is highly sensitive to these parameters and is consequently used as a metric to explore instrument sensitivities. We explore the unpolarized calibration issues associated with this class of LWIR polarimeters and discuss the resulting false polarization signature for thermally flat test scenes.
Division of focal plane (DoFP) polarimeters are a particular class of imaging device that consists of an array
of micropolarizers integrated upon a focal plane array sensor (FPA). Such devices are also called microgrid
polarimeters and have been studied over the past decade with systems being designed and built in all regions
of the optical spectrum. These systems are advantageous due to their rugged, compact design and ability to
obtain a complete set of polarimetric measurements during a single frame capture. One inherent disadvantage
of DoFP systems is that each pixel of the FPA sensor makes a polarized intensity measurement of a different
scene point. These spatial measurements are then used to estimate the Stokes vectors across the scene. Since
each polarized intensity measurement has a different instantaneous field-of-view (IFOV), artifacts are introduced
that can degrade the quality of estimated polarization imagery. Here we develop and demonstrate a visual
enhancement technique that is able to reduce false polarization caused by IFOV error while preserving true
polarization content within the Stokes parameter images. The technique is straight-forward conceptually and is
computationally efficient. All results are presented using data acquired from an actual LWIR microgrid sensor.
In order to understand the phenomenology of optimum data acquisition and analysis and to
develop an understanding of capabilities, field measurements of multiband, polarimetric data can
substantially assist in developing a methodology to collect and to exploit feature signatures.
In 1999, Duggin showed that images obtained with an 8-bit camera used as a polarimeter could
yield additional information to that contained in a radiometric (S0) image. It should be noted that
Walraven and Curran had performed some very fine experiments almost two decades earlier,
using photographic film, and North performed careful polarimetric measurements of the
skydome using a four-lens polarimetric film camera and convex mirror in 1997. There have been
a number of papers dealing with polarimetric field measurements since that time. Recently,
commercial color cameras have become available that have 12-bit depth per channel. Here, we
perform radiometric and chromatic calibrations and examine the possible use of a Nikon D200
10.2 mega pixel, 3 channel, 12-bit per channel camera fitted with a zoom lens as a potential field
imaging polarimeter. We show that there are still difficulties in using off-the-shelf technology for
field applications, but list some reasons why we need to address these challenges, in order to
understand the phenomenology of data collection and analysis metrics for multiple data streams.
Microgrid polarimeters, also known as division of focal plane (DoFP) polarimeters, are composed of an integrated
array of micropolarizing elements that immediately precedes the FPA. The result of the DoFP device is that
neighboring pixels sense different polarization states. The measurements made at each pixel can be combined to
estimate the Stokes vector at every reconstruction point in a scene. DoFP devices have the advantage that they
are mechanically rugged and inherently optically aligned. However, they suffer from the severe disadvantage
that the neighboring pixels that make up the Stokes vector estimates have different instantaneous fields of view
(IFOV). This IFOV error leads to spatial differencing that causes false polarization signatures, especially in
regions of the image where the scene changes rapidly in space. Furthermore, when the polarimeter is operating
in the LWIR, the FPA has inherent response problems such as nonuniformity and dead pixels that make the
false polarization problem that much worse. In this paper, we present methods that use spatial information from
the scene to mitigate two of the biggest problems that confront DoFP devices. The first is a polarimetric dead
pixel replacement (DPR) scheme, and the second is a reconstruction method that chooses the most appropriate
polarimetric interpolation scheme for each particular pixel in the image based on the scene properties. We have
found that these two methods can greatly improve both the visual appearance of polarization products as well
as the accuracy of the polarization estimates, and can be implemented with minimal computational cost.
Remote sensing applications make use of the optical polarization characteristics of a scene to enhance
target detection and discrimination. Imaging polarimeters typically utilize polarizing arrays located in
front of a focal plane array as a means of extracting polarization information from the optical scene. Over
the last few years, technology development efforts have resulted in FPAs that integrate the polarizer with
the infrared focal plane array (FPA). This paper will report on the radiometric and polarization
characterization of a micro-grid polarizer FPA from DRS Infrared Technologies, L.P. (DRS). These
measurements were performed to evaluate the radiometric performance and the polarization
characteristics of the FPA.
Recent developments for Long Wave InfraRed (LWIR) imaging polarimeters include incorporating a microgrid polarizer array onto the focal plane array (FPA). Inherent advantages over typical polarimeters include packaging and instantaneous acquisition of thermal and polarimetric information. This allows for real time video of thermal and polarimetric products. The microgrid approach has inherent polarization measurement error due to the spatial sampling of a non-uniform scene, residual pixel to pixel variations in the gain corrected responsivity and in the noise equivalent input (NEI), and variations in the pixel to pixel micro-polarizer performance. The Degree of Linear Polarization (DoLP) is highly sensitive to these parameters and is consequently used as a metric to explore instrument sensitivities. Image processing and fusion techniques are used to take advantage of the inherent thermal and polarimetric sensing capability of this FPA, providing additional scene information in real time. Optimal operating conditions are employed to improve FPA uniformity and sensitivity. Data from two DRS Infrared Technologies, L.P. (DRS) microgrid polarizer HgCdTe FPAs are presented. One FPA resides in a liquid nitrogen (LN2) pour filled dewar with a 80°K nominal operating temperature. The other FPA resides in a cryogenic (cryo) dewar with a 60° K nominal operating temperature.
Accurately identifying and bounding error sources in imaging spectro-polarimeters is a challenging task. Here we present an error evaluation methodology intended as an organizational tool for both itemizing and quantifying sources of error in polarimetric instruments. Associated with each source of error are both a metric and test by which these errors may be quantified. Using this procedure, we examine the accuracy and precision of a particular imaging Stokes vector hyper-spectral polarimeter. A subset of the identified error sources are selected and propagated through the system. These measured error quantities are then used to put absolute error bounds on the data acquired by our instrument. These measured error quantities are further documented and presented in the form of an error evaluation sheet.
In this paper we outline and address some of the challenges encountered in calibrating a visible 4-channel imaging reduced Stokes polarimeter. Specifically we expose the errors associated with the retardance of the optical elements in the system and show how the presence of circular polarization can affect the measurement of the linear states of polarization. These errors are analyzed in some detail and several possible solutions are proposed.
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