We present a new type of a quantum detector, namely, the superconducting single-photon detector (SSPD), and demonstrate that it can be implemented in various single-photon counting applications, ranging from the visible light to near-infrared telecommunication wavelengths. We describe the physics of the photoresponse of a superconducting nanostripe to a flux of single optical photons and present the operation principle of SSPDs, stressing that, currently, they significantly outperform any competing, research or commercial devices in terms of their quantum efficiency, counting rate, jitter, and unwanted dark counts. SSPDs integrated with a cryogenic HEMT read-out circuit can provide some level of both the energy and number resolution of an unknown incident photon flux, making them uniquely suitable for various photon sensing applications.
Thermodynamic fluctuations of the superconducting order parameter in NbN/NiCu and NbTiN/NiCu superconductor/ferromagnet (S/F) thin bilayers patterned to microbridges are investigated. Plain NbN and NbTiN films served as reference materials for the analyses. The samples were grown using dc-magnetron sputtering on chemically cleaned sapphire single-crystal substrates. After rapid thermal annealing at high temperatures, the superconducting films were coated with NiCu overlays, using co-sputtering. The positive magnetoresistance of the superconducting single layers is very small in the normal state but with a sharp upturn close to the superconducting transition, a familiar signature of superconducting fluctuations. The fluctuation-enhanced conductivity (paraconductivity) of the NbN and NbTiN single layer films is slightly larger than the prediction of the parameter-free Aslamazov-Larkin theory for order-parameter fluctuations in two-dimensional superconductors. The addition of a ferromagnetic top layer, however, changes the magnetotransport properties significantly. The S/F bilayers show a negative magnetoresistance up to almost room temperature, while the signature of fluctuations is similar to that in the plain films, demonstrating the relevance of both ferromagnetic and superconducting effects in the S/F bilayers. The paraconductivity is reduced below theoretical predictions, in particular in the NbTiN/NiCu bilayers. Such suppression of the fluctuation amplitude in S/F bilayers could be favorable to reduce dark counts in superconducting photon detectors and lead the way to enhance their performance.
Maciej Węgrzecki, Tadeusz Piotrowski, Zbigniew Puzewicz, Jan Bar, Ryszard Czarnota, Rafal Dobrowolski, Andrii Klimov, Jan Kulawik, Helena Kłos, Michał Marchewka, Marek Nieprzecki, Andrzej Panas, Bartłomiej Seredyński, Andrzej Sierakowski, Wojciech Słysz, Beata Synkiewicz, Dariusz Szmigiel, Michał Zaborowski
In this paper a concept of a new bulk structure of p+-υ-n+ silicon photodiodes optimized for the detection of fast-changing radiation at the 1064 nm wavelength is presented. The design and technology for two types of quadrant photodiodes, the 8-segment photodiode and the 32-element linear photodiode array that were developed according to the concept are described.
Electric and photoelectric parameters of the photodiodes mentioned above are presented.
In this paper, the design and technology of two types of 16-element photodiode arrays is described. The arrays were developed by the ITE and are to be used in detection of microdeflection of laser radiation at the Institute of Metrology and Biomedical Engineering in the Faculty of Mechatronics of Warsaw University of Technology.
The electrical and photoelectrical parameters of the arrays are presented.
Critical current and current-voltage characteristics of epitaxial Nb(Ti)N submicron ultrathin structures were measured as function of temperature. For 700-nm-wide bridge we found current-driven vortex de-pinning at low temperatures and thermally activated flux flow closer to the transition temperature, as the limiting factors for the critical current density. For 100-nm-wide meander we observed combination of phase-slip activation and vortex-anti-vortex pair (VAP) thermal excitation. Our Nb(Ti)N meander structure demonstrates high de-pairing critical current densities ~107 A/cm2 at low temperatures, but the critical currents are much smaller due to presence of the local constrictions.
A. Klimov, R. Puźniak, B. Aichner, W. Lang, E. Joon, R. Stern, W. Słysz, M. Guziewicz, M. Juchniewicz, M. Borysiewicz, R. Kruszka, M. Węgrzecki, A. Łaszcz, A. Czerwinski, Roman Sobolewski
Performance of superconducting single-photon detectors based on resistive hotspot formation in nanostripes upon optical photon absorption depends strongly on the critical current density JC of the fabricated nanostructure. Utilization of an ultrathin, weak-ferromagnet cap layer on the top of a superconducting film enhances of the structure’s JC due to an extra flux pinning. We have fabricated a number of both NbN/NiCu and NbTiN/NiCu superconductor/ferromagnet (S/F) ultrathin bilayers and microbridges. NbN and NbTiN underlayers with thicknesses varying from 4 to 7 nm were grown using dc-magnetron sputtering on chemically cleaned sapphire single-crystal substrates. After rapid thermal annealing at high temperatures, the S films were coated with Ni0.54Cu0.46 overlayers with thicknesses of about 6 nm, using cosputtering. Compositions of the deposited films were confirmed by EDX spectroscopy analysis, while TEM studies demonstrated excellent epitaxial quality of our S layers with ~2-nm-thick F/S transition layer and atomically-sharp S/substrate interface. Magnetic properties of bilayers were studied using both the SQUID and Vibrating Sample Magnetometer techniques in low and high magnetic fields. Low-temperature tests confirmed that in all cases NiCu films were ferromagnetic with the Curie temperature of above 30 K. Below the bilayer critical temperature of approx. 12-13 K, the structures were fully proximitized with the strong superconducting signal. For superconducting transport properties characterization, we used bilayers patterned into 40-μm-long microbridges with the width varying from 0.4 μm to 2 μm. The same S/F nanostructures were also used to study their superconducting fluctuations. The temperature dependence of magnetoresistance demonstrated highly 2-dimensional character with an unusual negative region that extended almost to room temperature. In the S/F sample, the fluctuations were observed to be substantially below theoretical expectations.
The paper presents the design, technology and parameters of a new .silicon detector for detection of electrons (below named as beta detector) developed at the Institute of Electron Technology (ITE). The detector will be used for research on transactinide elements at the GSI Helmholtzzentrum für Schwerionenforschung GmbH, Darmstadt (GSI). The detector consists of a monolithic 32-element array with an active area diameter of 90 mm and a thickness of 0.9 mm. The starting material is a high-resistivity ν silicon wafer (5 kΩcm resistivity). 32 planar p+-ν junctions are formed by boron diffusion on the top side of the wafer. On the bottom side, an n+ region, which forms a common cathode, is formed on the entire surface by phosphorus diffusion.
The array is mounted on a special epoxy-glass laminate substrate, copper-clad on both sides. Two model detectors have been fabricated and studied. Very good electrical parameters have been achieved. For the first array, with supply voltage VR = 20 V, the minimum dark current was 8 nA, the maximum dark current 97.1 nA, and the average dark current 25.1 nA. For the second array, it was 11.5 nA, 378.8 nA and 40.0 nA respectively.
Maciej Węgrzecki, Dariusz Wolski, Jan Bar, Tadeusz Budzyński, Arkadiusz Chłopik, Piotr Grabiec, Helena Kłos, Andrzej Panas, Tadeusz Piotrowski, Wojciech Słysz, Maciej Stolarski, Dariusz Szmigiel, Iwona Węgrzecka, Michał Zaborowski
The paper presents the design, technology and parameters of a new, silicon 64-element linear photodiode array developed at the Institute of Electron Technology (ITE) for the detection of scintillations emitted by CsI scintillators (λ≈550 nm). The arrays are used in a device for examining the content of containers at border crossings under development at the National Centre for Nuclear Research. Two arrays connected with a scintillator block (128 CsI scintillators) form a 128-channel detection module. The array consists of 64 epiplanar photodiode structures (5.1 × 7.2 mm) and a 5.3 mm module. p+-ν-n+ photodiode structures are optimised for the detection of radiation of λ≈ 550 nm wavelength with no voltage applied (photovoltaic mode). The structures are mounted on an epoxy-glass laminate substrate, copper-clad on both sides, on which connections with a common anode and separate cathode leads are located. The photosensitive surface of photodiodes is covered with a special silicone gel, which protects photodiodes against the mechanical impact of scintillators
Progress in quality of ultrathin superconducting niobium nitride films for fabrication technology of single photon
detectors is here presented. The films deposited on Al2O3 single crystals reveal excellent both superconducting and
structure properties but the films deposited on Si single crystals have really worse parameters. High epitaxial quality of
NbN and NbTiN films grown on the Al2O3 substrates is proved by HRXRD and HRTEM studies. The results of the
studies on both NbN and NbTiN films reveal one cubic NbN phase with NaCl-type structure, and the planes of NbN are
correlated with Al2O3 crystal orientation. The critical temperatures of NbN and NbTiN films with thickness of few nm
grown on the Al2O3 and Si substrates are in range 4K ÷ 7K, but post-grown annealing of the films at 1000°C in Ar
increases temperature about 10K. Moreover, the NbTiN film deposited on sapphire at optimized conditions and annealed
discloses the best superconducting properties - critical temperature of 14 K as well as extremely high critical current
density of 12·106 A/cm2. This is the best results measured on so thin superconducting films and not reported up to now.
The improvement in superconductor parameters is explained here due to reduced strain and defects by high temperature
annealing of the film. Structural analysis on the annealed NbTiN films by XRD measurement confirms that FWHM of
the 111 Bragg reflection is extremely narrow, about value of 10 arcsec characterising the best single crystals.
Iwona Wegrzecka, Andrzej Panas, Jan Bar, Tadeusz Budzyński, Piotr Grabiec, Roman Kozłowski, Jerzy Sarnecki, Wojciech Słysz, Dariusz Szmigiel, Maciej Węgrzecki, Michał Zaborowski
The paper discusses the technology of silicon charged-particle detectors developed at the Institute of Electron
Technology (ITE). The developed technology enables the fabrication of both planar and epiplanar p+-ν-n+ detector
structures with an active area of up to 50 cm2. The starting material for epiplanar structures are silicon wafers with a
high-resistivity n-type epitaxial layer ( ν layer - ρ < 3 kΩcm) deposited on a highly doped n+-type substrate
(ρ< 0,02Ωcm) developed and fabricated at the Institute of Electronic Materials Technology. Active layer thickness of
the epiplanar detectors (νlayer) may range from 10 μm to 150 μm. Imported silicon with min. 5 kΩcm resistivity is used
to fabricate planar detectors. Active layer thickness of the planar detectors (ν) layer) may range from 200 μm to 1 mm.
This technology enables the fabrication of both discrete and multi-junction detectors (monolithic detector arrays), such as
single-sided strip detectors (epiplanar and planar) and double-sided strip detectors (planar). Examples of process
diagrams for fabrication of the epiplanar and planar detectors are presented in the paper, and selected technological
processes are discussed.
Maciej Węgrzecki, Jan Bar, Tadeusz Budzyński, Michal Cież, Piotr Grabiec, Roman Kozłowski, Jan Kulawik, Andrzej Panas, Jerzy Sarnecki, Wojciech Słysz, Dariusz Szmigiel, Iwona Węgrzecka, Marek Wielunski, Krzysztof Witek, Alexander Yakushev, Michał Zaborowski
The paper discusses the design of charged-particle detectors commissioned and developed at the Institute of Electron
Technology (ITE) in collaboration with foreign partners, used in international research on transactinide elements and to
build personal radiation protection devices in Germany. Properties of these detectors and the results obtained using the
devices are also presented. The design of the following epiplanar detector structures is discussed:
♦ 64-element chromatographic arrays for the COMPACT (Cryo On-line Multidetector for Physics And Chemistry of
Transactinides) detection system used at the GSI Helmholtzzentrum für Schwerionenforschung in Darmstadt (GSI)
for research on Hassium, Copernicium and Flerovium, as well as elements 119 and 120,
♦ 2-element flow detectors for the COLD (Cryo On-Line Detector) system used for research on Copernicium and
Flerovium at the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research, Dubna,
♦ detectors for a radon exposimeter and sensors for a neutron dosimeter developed at the Institut für Strahlenschutz,
Helmholtz Zentrum München.
The design of planar detectors – single-sided and double-sided strip detectors for the Focal Plane Detector Box used at
GSI for research on Flerovium and elements 119 and 120 is also discussed.
Single-photon detectors (SPDs) are the foundation of all quantum communications (QC) protocols.
Among different classes of SPDs currently studied, NbN superconducting SPDs (SSPDs) are established as the
best devices for ultrafast counting of single photons in the infrared (IR) wavelength range. The SSPDs are
nanostructured, 100 μm2
in total area, superconducting meanders, patterned by electron lithography in ultra-thin
NbN films. Their operation has been explained within a phenomenological hot-electron photoresponse model.
We present the design and performance of a novel, two-channel SPD receiver, based on two fiber-coupled NbN
SSPDs. The receivers have been developed for fiber-based QC systems, operational at 1.3 μm and 1.55 μm
telecommunication wavelengths. They operate in the temperature range from 4.2 K to 2 K, in which the NbN
SSPDs exhibit their best performance. The receiver unit has been designed as a cryostat insert, placed inside a
standard liquid-heliumstorage dewar. The input of the receiver consists of a pair of single-mode optical fibers,
equipped with the standard FC connectors and kept at room temperature. Coupling between the SSPD and the
fiber is achieved using a specially designed, precise micromechanical holder that places the fiber directly on top
of the SSPD nanostructure. Our receivers achieve the quantum efficiency of up to 7% for near-IR photons, with
the coupling efficiency of about 30%. The response time was measured to be < 1.5 ns and it was limited by our
read-out electronics. The jitter of fiber-coupled SSPDs is < 35 ps and their dark-count rate is below 1s-1. The
presented performance parameters show that our single-photon receivers are fully applicable for quantum correlation-type QC systems, including practical quantum cryptography.
We have fabricated fiber-coupled superconducting single-photon detectors (SSPDs), designed for quantum-correlationtype
experiments. The SSPDs are nanostructured (~100-nm wide and 4-nm thick) NbN superconducting meandering
stripes, operated in the 2 to 4.2 K temperature range, and known for ultrafast and efficient detection of visible to nearinfrared
photons with almost negligible dark counts. Our latest devices are pigtailed structures with coupling between
the SSPD structure and a single-mode optical fiber achieved using a micromechanical photoresist ring placed directly
over the meander. The above arrangement withstands repetitive thermal cycling between liquid helium and room
temperature, and we can reach the coupling efficiency of up to ~33%. The system quantum efficiency, measured as the
ratio of the photons counted by SSPD to the total number of photons coupled into the fiber, in our early devices was
found to be around 0.3 % and 1% for 1.55 &mgr;m and 0.9 &mgr;m photon wavelengths, respectively. The photon counting rate
exceeded 250 MHz. The receiver with two SSPDs, each individually biased, was placed inside a transport, 60-liter
liquid helium Dewar, assuring uninterrupted operation for over 2 months. Since the receiver's optical and electrical
connections are at room temperature, the set-up is suitable for any applications, where single-photon counting capability
and fast count rates are desired. In our case, it was implemented for photon correlation experiments. The receiver
response time, measured as a second-order photon cross-correlation function, was found to be below 400 ps, with
timing jitter of less than 40 ps.
We present our latest generation of superconducting single-photon detectors (SSPDs) patterned from 4-nm-thick NbN films, as meander-shaped ~0.5-mm-long and ~100-nm-wide stripes. The SSPDs exhibit excellent performance parameters in the visible-to-near-infrared radiation wavelengths: quantum efficiency (QE) of our best devices approaches a saturation level of ~30% even at 4.2 K (limited by the NbN film optical absorption) and dark counts as low as 2x10-4 Hz. The presented SSPDs were designed to maintain the QE of large-active-area devices, but, unless our earlier SSPDs, hampered by a significant kinetic inductance and a nanosecond response time, they are characterized by a low inductance and GHz counting rates. We have designed, simulated, and tested the structures consisting of several, connected in parallel, meander sections, each having a resistor connected in series. Such new, multi-element geometry led to a significant decrease of the device kinetic inductance without the decrease of its active area and QE. The presented improvement in the SSPD performance makes our detectors most attractive for high-speed quantum communications and quantum cryptography applications.
We present the design and performance of a novel, two-channel single-photon receiver, based on two fiber-coupled NbN superconducting single-photon detectors (SSPDs). The SSPDs are nanostructured superconducting meanders covering an area of 100 μm2 and are known for ultrafast and efficient counting of single, visible-to-infrared photons. Their operation has been explained within a phenomenological hot-electron photoresponse model. Our receiver is intended for fiber-based quantum cryptography and communication systems, operational at near-infrared (NIR) telecommunication wavelengths, λ = 1.3 μm and λ = 1.55 μm. Coupling between the NbN detector and a single-mode optical fiber was achieved using a specially designed, micromechanical photoresist ring, positioned directly over the SSPD active area. The positioning accuracy of the ring was below 1 μm. The receiver with SSPDs was placed (immersed) in a standard liquid-helium transport Dewar and kept without interruption for over two months at 4.2 K. At the same time, the optical fiber inputs and electrical outputs were kept at room temperature. Our best system reached a system quantum efficiency of up to 0.3 % in the NIR radiation range, with the detector coupling efficiency of about 30 %. The response time was measured to be about 250 ps and was limited by our read-out electronics. The measured jitter was close to 35 ps. The presented performance parameters show that our NIR single photon detectors are suitable for practical quantum cryptography and for applications in quantum-correlation experiments.
We report on our progress in research and development of ultrafast superconducting single-photon detectors (SSPDs) based on ultrathin NbN nanostructures. Our SSPDs were made of the 4-nm-thick NbN films with Tc ~11 K, patterned as meander-shaped, 100-nm-wide strips, and covering an area of 10×10 μm2. The detectors exploit a combined detection mechanism, where upon a single-photon absorption, a hotspot of excited electrons and redistribution of the biasing supercurrent, jointly produce a picosecond voltage transient signal across the superconducting nanostripe. The SSPDs are typically operated at 4.2 K, but their sensitivity in the infrared radiation range can be significantly improved by lowering the operating temperature from 4.2 K to 2 K. When operated at 2 K, the SSPD quantum efficiency (QE) for visible light photons reaches 30-40%, which is the saturation value limited by the optical absorption of our 4-nm-thick NbN film. With the wavelength increase of the incident photons,the QE of SSPDs decreases significantly, but even at the wavelength of 6 μm, the detector is able to count single photons and exhibits QE of about 10-2 %. The dark (false) count rate at 2 K is as low as 2x10-4 s,-1 which makes our detector essentially a background-limited sensor. The very low dark-count rate results in a noise equivalent power (NEP) below 10-18 WHz-1/2 for the mid-infrared range (6 μm). Further improvement of the SSPD performance in the mid-infrared range can be obtained by substituting NbN for another, lower-Tc materials with a narrow superconducting gap and low quasiparticles diffusivity. The use of such superconductors should shift the cutoff wavelength below 10 μm.
We present our studies on quantum efficiency (QE), dark counts, and noise equivalent power (NEP) of the latest generation of nanostructured NbN superconducting single-photon detectors (SSPDs) operated at 2.0 K. Our SSPDs are based on 4 nm-thick NbN films, patterned by electron beam lithography as highly-uniform 100÷120-nm-wide meander-shaped stripes, covering the total area of 10x10 μm2 with the meander filling factor of 0.7. Advances in the fabrication process and low-temperature operation lead to QE as high as ~30-40% for visible-light photons (0.56 μm wavelength)-the saturation value, limited by optical absorption of the NbN film. For 1.55 μm photons, QE was ~20% and decreased exponentially with the wavelength reaching ~0.02% at the 5-μm wavelength. Being operated at 2.0-K temperature the SSPDs revealed an exponential decrease of the dark count rate, what along with the high QE, resulted in the NEP as low as 5x10-21 W/Hz-1/2, the lowest value ever reported for near-infrared optical detectors. The SSPD counting rate was measured to be above 1 GHz with the pulse-to-pulse jitter below 20 ps. Our nanostructured NbN SSPDs operated at 2.0 K significantly outperform their semiconducting counterparts and find practical applications ranging from noninvasive testing of CMOS VLSI integrated circuits to ultrafast quantum communications and quantum cryptography.
Maciej Wegrzecki, Iwona Wegrzecka, Jan Bar, Wojciech Slysz, Maria Grynglas, Andrzej Uszynski, Remigiusz Grodecki, Piotr Grabiec, Sylwester Krzeminski, Tadeusz Budzynski, Andrzej Panas
The paper presents the results of the work on high speed epiplanar photodiodes of a small active area used in laser and fiber-optic techniques and epiplanar diodes of a large active area destined for nuclear radiation detection. Also planar diodes with a large active area and thick active region assigned for detection of optical, nuclear and X radiation are discussed.
We present a new class of single-photon devices for counting of both visible and infrared photons. Our superconducting single-photon detectors (SSPDs) are characterized by the intrinsic quantum efficiency (QE) reaching up to 100%, above 10 GHz counting rate, and negligible dark counts. The detection mechanism is based on the photon-induced hotspot formation and subsequent appearance of a transient resistive barrier across an ultrathin and submicron-wide superconducting stripe. The devices are fabricated from 3.5-nm-thick NbN films and operate at 4.2 K, well below the NbN superconducting transition temperature. Various continuous and pulsed laser sources in the wavelength range from 0.4 μm up to >3 μm were implemented in our experiments, enabling us to determine the detector QE in the photon-counting mode, response time, and jitter. For our best 3.5-nm-thick, 10×10 μm2-area devices, QE was found to reach almost 100% for any wavelength shorter than about 800 nm. For longer-wavelength (infrared) radiation, QE decreased exponentially with the photon wavelength increase. Time-resolved measurements of our SSPDs showed that the system-limited detector response pulse width was below 150 ps. The system jitter was measured to be 35 ps. In terms of the counting rate, jitter, and dark counts, the NbN SSPDs significantly outperform their semiconductor counterparts. Already identifeid and implemented applications of our devices range from noninvasive testing of semiconductor VLSI circuits to free-space quantum communications and quantum cryptography.
We have developed a new class of superconducting single-photon detectors (SSPDs) for ultrafast counting of infrared (IR) photons for secure quantum communications. The devices are operated on the quantum detection mechanism, based on the photon-induced hotspot formation and subsequent appearance of a transient resistive barrier across an ultrathin and submicron-wide superconducting stripe. The detectors are fabricated from 3.5-nm-thick NbN films and they operate at 4.2 K inside a closed-cycle refrigerator or liquid helium cryostat. Various continuous and pulsed laser sources have been used in our experiments, enabling us to determine the detector experimental quantum efficiency (QE) in the photon-counting mode, response time, time jitter, and dark counts. Our 3.5-nm-thick SSPDs reached QE above 15% for visible light photons and 5% at 1.3 - 1.5 μm infrared range. The measured real-time counting rate was above 2 GHz and was limited by the read-out electronics (intrinsic response time is <30 ps). The measured jitter was <18 ps, and the dark counting rate was <0.01 per second. The measured noise equivalent power (NEP) is 2 x 10-18 W/Hz1/2 at λ = 1.3 μm. In near-infrared range, in terms of the counting rate, jitter, dark counts, and overall sensitivity, the NbN SSPDs significantly outperform their semiconductor counterparts. An ultrafast quantum cryptography communication technology based on SSPDs is proposed and discussed.
We report our studies on the performance of new NbN ultrathin-film superconducting single-photon detectors (SSPDs). Our SSPDs exhibit experimentally measured quantum efficiencies from ~ 5% at wavelength λ = 1550 nm up to ~10% at λ = 405 nm, with exponential, activation-energy-type spectral sensitivity dependence in the 0.4-μm - 3-μm wavelength range. Using a variable optical delay setup, we have shown that our NbN SSPDs can resolve optical photons with a counting rate up to 10 GHz, presently limited by the read-out electronics. The measured device jitter was below 35 ps under optimum biasing conditions. The extremely high photon counting rate, together with relatively high (especially for λ > 1 μm) quantum efficiency, low jitter, and very low dark counts, make NbN SSPDs very promising for free-space communications and quantum cryptography.
Access to the requested content is limited to institutions that have purchased or subscribe to SPIE eBooks.
You are receiving this notice because your organization may not have SPIE eBooks access.*
*Shibboleth/Open Athens users─please
sign in
to access your institution's subscriptions.
To obtain this item, you may purchase the complete book in print or electronic format on
SPIE.org.
INSTITUTIONAL Select your institution to access the SPIE Digital Library.
PERSONAL Sign in with your SPIE account to access your personal subscriptions or to use specific features such as save to my library, sign up for alerts, save searches, etc.