The Large Binocular Telescope Interferometer (LBTI) combines the light from the two 8.4 m primary mirrors of the LBT for interferometry and adaptive optics (AO) imaging. With two high performance, state-of-the-art AO systems and adaptive secondary mirrors, a cryogenic instrument, and an edge-to-edge baseline of 23 m, the LBTI is a unique instrument for sensitive, high-angular resolution and high-contrast thermal infrared observations. After the successful completion of the NASA-funded HOSTS nulling interferometry survey for exozodiacal dust, our team is now completing the commissioning and extending the capabilities of other observing modes, namely Fizeau imaging interferometry, spectro-interferometry, integral field spectroscopy, non-redundant aperture masking, and coronagraphy for general astronomical observations. In this paper we briefly review the design of the LBTI, summarize the results and performance of HOSTS, and describe the LBTI’s wider current and future capabilities.
We introduce the Michigan Infrared Test Thermal ELT N-band (MITTEN) Cryostat, a new facility for testing infrared detectors with a focus on mid-infrared (MIR) wavelengths (8-13 microns). New generations of large format, deep well, fast readout MIR detectors are now becoming available to the astronomical community. As one example, Teledyne Imaging Sensors (TIS) has introduced a long-wave Mercury-Cadmium-Telluride (MCT) array, GeoSnap, with high quantum efficiency (< 65 %) and improved noise properties compared to previous generation Si:As blocked impurity band (BIB) detectors. GeoSnap promises improved sensitivities, and efficiencies, for future background-limited MIR instruments, in particular with future extremely large telescopes (ELTs). We describe our new test facility suitable for measuring characteristics of these detectors, such as read noise, dark current, linearity, gain, pixel operability, quantum efficiency, and point source imaging performance relative to a background scene, as well as multiple point sources of differing contrast. MITTEN has an internal light source, and soon an accompanying filter wheel and aperture plate, reimaged onto the detector using an Offner relay. The baseline temperature of the cryostat interior is maintained is < 40 K and the optical bench maintains a temperature of 16 K using a two-stage pulse-tube cryocooler package from Cryomech. No measurable background radiation from the cryostat interior has yet been detected.
The presence of large amounts of dust in the habitable zones of nearby stars is a significant obstacle for future exo-Earth imaging missions. We executed the HOSTS (Hunt for Observable Signatures of Terrestrial Systems) survey to determine the typical amount of such exozodiacal dust around a sample of nearby main sequence stars. The majority of the data have been analyzed and we present here an update of our ongoing work. Nulling interferometry in N band was used to suppress the bright stellar light and to detect faint, extended circumstellar dust emission. We present an overview of the latest results from our ongoing work. We find seven new N band excesses in addition to the high confidence confirmation of three that were previously known. We find the first detections around Sun-like stars and around stars without previously known circumstellar dust. Our overall detection rate is 23%. The inferred occurrence rate is comparable for early type and Sun-like stars, but decreases from 71+11 -20% for stars with previously detected mid- to far-infrared excess to 11+9 -4% for stars without such excess, confirming earlier results at high confidence. For completed observations on individual stars, our sensitivity is five to ten times better than previous results. Assuming a lognormal luminosity function of the dust, we find upper limits on the median dust level around all stars without previously known mid to far infrared excess of 11.5 zodis at 95% confidence level. The corresponding upper limit for Sun-like stars is 16 zodis. An LBTI vetted target list of Sun-like stars for exo-Earth imaging would have a corresponding limit of 7.5 zodis. We provide important new insights into the occurrence rate and typical levels of habitable zone dust around main sequence stars. Exploiting the full range of capabilities of the LBTI provides a critical opportunity for the detailed characterization of a sample of exozodiacal dust disks to understand the origin, distribution, and properties of the dust.
The Large Binocular Telescope Interferometer uses a near-infrared camera to measure the optical path length variations between the two AO-corrected apertures and provide high-angular resolution observations for all its science channels (1.5-13 microns). There is however a wavelength dependent component to the atmospheric turbulence, which can introduce optical path length errors when observing at a wavelength different from that of the fringe sensing camera. Water vapor in particular is highly dispersive and its effect must be taken into account for high-precision infrared interferometric observations as described previously for VLTI/MIDI or the Keck Interferometer Nuller. In this paper, we describe the new sensing approach that has been developed at the LBT to measure and monitor the optical path length fluctuations due to dry air and water vapor separately. After reviewing the current performance of the system for dry air seeing compensation, we present simultaneous H-, K-, and N-band observations that illustrate the feasibility of our feedforward approach to stabilize the path length fluctuations seen by the LBTI nuller.
The Large Binocular Telescope Interferometer (LBTI) is a high spatial resolution instrument developed for coherent imaging and nulling interferometry using the 14.4 m baseline of the 2×8.4 m LBT. The unique telescope design, comprising of the dual apertures on a common elevation-azimuth mount, enables a broad use of observing modes. The full system is comprised of dual adaptive optics systems, a near-infrared phasing camera, a 1-5 μm camera (called LMIRCam), and an 8-13 μm camera (called NOMIC). The key program for LBTI is the Hunt for Observable Signatures of Terrestrial planetary Systems (HOSTS), a survey using nulling interferometry to constrain the typical brightness from exozodiacal dust around nearby stars. Additional observations focus on the detection and characterization of giant planets in the thermal infrared, high spatial resolution imaging of complex scenes such as Jupiter's moon, Io, planets forming in transition disks, and the structure of active Galactic Nuclei (AGN). Several instrumental upgrades are currently underway to improve and expand the capabilities of LBTI. These include: Improving the performance and limiting magnitude of the parallel adaptive optics systems; quadrupling the field of view of LMIRcam (increasing to 20"x20"); adding an integral field spectrometry mode; and implementing a new algorithm for path length correction that accounts for dispersion due to atmospheric water vapor. We present the current architecture and performance of LBTI, as well as an overview of the upgrades.
The Large Binocular Telescope Interferometer (LBTI) is a strategic instrument of the LBT designed for highsensitivity, high-contrast, and high-resolution infrared (1.5-13 μm) imaging of nearby planetary systems. To carry out a wide range of high-spatial resolution observations, it can combine the two AO-corrected 8.4-m apertures of the LBT in various ways including direct (non-interferometric) imaging, coronagraphy (APP and AGPM), Fizeau imaging, non-redundant aperture masking, and nulling interferometry. It also has broadband, narrowband, and spectrally dispersed capabilities. In this paper, we review the performance of these modes in terms of exoplanet science capabilities and describe recent instrumental milestones such as first-light Fizeau images (with the angular resolution of an equivalent 22.8-m telescope) and deep interferometric nulling observations.
The Large Binocular Telescope Interferometer (LBTI) is a strategically important instrument for exploiting the use of the LBT as a 22.7 m telescope. The LBTI has two science cameras (covering the 1.5-5 μm and 8-13 μm atmospheric windows), and a number of observing modes that allow it to carry out a wide range of high-spatial resolution observations. Some simple modes, such as AO imaging, are in routine use. We report here on testing and commissioning of the system for its more ambitious goals as a nulling interferometer and coherent imager. The LBTI will carry out key surveys to Hunt for Observable Signatures of Terrestrial planetary Systems (HOSTS) and an LBTI Exozodi-Exoplanet Common Hunt (LEECH). The current nulling and coherent imaging performance is described.
The Large Binocular Telescope Interferometer is a NASA-funded nulling and imaging instrument designed to coherently combine the two 8.4-m primary mirrors of the LBT for high-sensitivity, high-contrast, and highresolution infrared imaging (1.5-13 μm). PHASECam is LBTI's near-infrared camera used to measure tip-tilt and phase variations between the two AO-corrected apertures and provide high-angular resolution observations. We report on the status of the system and describe its on-sky performance measured during the first semester of 2014. With a spatial resolution equivalent to that of a 22.8-meter telescope and the light-gathering power of single 11.8-meter mirror, the co-phased LBT can be considered to be a forerunner of the next-generation extremely large telescopes (ELT).
KEYWORDS: Coronagraphy, Planets, Telescopes, Stars, Space telescopes, Signal to noise ratio, Adaptive optics, Principal component analysis, Point spread functions, Spiral phase plates
We present the first observations obtained with the L'-band AGPM vortex coronagraph recently installed on LBTI/LMIRCam. The AGPM (Annular Groove Phase Mask) is a vector vortex coronagraph made from diamond subwavelength gratings. It is designed to improve the sensitivity and dynamic range of high-resolution imaging at very small inner working angles, down to 0.09 arcseconds in the case of LBTI/LMIRCam in the L' band. During the first hours on sky, we observed the young A5V star HR8799 with the goal to demonstrate the AGPM performance and assess its relevance for the ongoing LBTI planet survey (LEECH). Preliminary analyses of the data reveal the four known planets clearly at high SNR and provide unprecedented sensitivity limits in the inner planetary system (down to the diffraction limit of 0.09 arcseconds).
The mid-infrared (8-13 μm) camera, NOMIC, is a critical component of the Large Binocular Telescope Interferometer
search for exozodiacal light around near-by stars. It is optimized for nulling interferometry but has general capability for
direct imaging, low resolution spectrometry, and Fizeau interferometry. The camera uses a Raytheon 1024x1024 Si:As
IBC Aquarius array with a 30 μm pitch which yields 0.018 arc-second pixels on the sky. This provides spatial resolution
(λ/D) at a 10 μm wavelength of 0.27 arc-seconds for a single 8.4 meter LBT aperture and of 0.10 arcseconds for Fizeau interferometry with the dual apertures. The array is operated with a differential preamplifier and a version of the 16
channel array controller developed at Cornell University for the FORCAST instrument on the Sofia Observatory. With a
2.4 MHz pixel rate the camera can achieve integration times as short as 27 milliseconds full array and 3 milliseconds
partial array. The large range of integration times and two array integration well sizes allow for a wide range of
background flux on the array. We describe the design and operation of the camera and present the performance of this
system in terms of linearity, noise, quantum efficiency, image quality, and photometric sensitivity.
The L/M-band (3−5 μm) InfraRed Camera (LMIRcam) sits at the combined focal plane of the Large Binocular
Telescope Interferometer (LBTI), ultimately imaging the coherently combined focus of the LBT’s two 8.4-meter
mirrors. LMIRcam achieved first light at the LBT in May 2011 using a single AO-enabled 8.4-meter aperture.
With the delivery of LBT’s final adaptive secondary mirror in Fall of 2011, dual-aperture AO-corrected interferometric
fringes were realized in April 2012. We report on the performance of these configurations and characterize
the noise performance of LMIRcam’s HAWAII-2RG 5.3-μm cutoff array paired with Cornell FORCAST readout
electronics. In addition, we describe recent science highlights and discuss future improvements to the LMIRcam
hardware.
The Thermal Infrared imager for the GMT which provides Extreme contrast and Resolution (TIGER) is intended as a
small-scale, targeted instrument capable of detecting and characterizing exoplanets and circumstellar disks, around both
young systems in formation, and more mature systems in the solar neighborhood. TIGER can also provide general
purpose infrared imaging at wavelengths from 1.5-14 μm. The instrument will utilize the facility adaptive optics (AO)
system. With its operation at NIR to MIR wavelengths (where good image quality is easier to achieve), and much of the
high-impact science using modestly bright guide stars, the instrument can be used early in the operation of the GMT.
The TIGER concept is a dual channel imager and low resolution spectrometer, with high contrast modes of observations
to fulfill the above science goals. A long wavelength channel (LWC) will cover 7-14 μm wavelength, while a short
wavelength channel (SWC) will cover the 1.5-5 μm wavelength region. Both channels will have a 30° FOV. In addition
to imaging, low-resolution spectroscopy (R=300) is possible with TIGER for both the SWC and LWC, using insertable
grisms.
The Infrared Array Camera (IRAC) is now the only science instrument in operation on the Spitzer Space Telescope. The
3.6 and 4.5 µm channels are temperature-stabilized at ~28.7K, and the sensitivity of IRAC is nearly identical to what it
was in the cryogenic mission. The instrument point response function (PRF) is a set of values from which one can
determine the point spread function (PSF) for a source at any position in the field, and is dependent on the optical
characteristics of the telescope and instrument as well as the detector sampling and pixel response. These data are
necessary when performing PSF-fitting photometry of sources, for deconvolving an IRAC image, subtracting out a
bright source in a field, or for estimating the flux of a source that saturates the detector. Since the telescope and
instrument are operating at a higher temperature in the post-cryogenic mission, we re-derive the PRFs for IRAC from
measurements obtained after the warm mission temperature set point and detector biases were finalized and compare
them to the 3.6 and 4.5 µm PRFs determined during the cryogenic mission to assess any changes.
We report the first phased images using adaptive optics correction from the Large Binocular Telescope Interferometer.
LBTI achieved first fringes in late 2010, with seeing-limited operation. Initial tests verified the feasibility of the setup
and allowed us to characterize the phase variations from both the atmosphere and mechanical vibrations. Integration of
the secondary-base AO systems was carried out in spring 2011 and spring 2012 for the right and left side respectively.
Single aperture, diffraction-limited, operation has been commissioned and is used as a productive mode of the LBTI with
the LMIRCam subsystem. We describe the initial observation for dual aperture observations and coherent imaging
results.
We present an overview of the calibration and properties of data from the IRAC instrument aboard the Spitzer Space
Telescope taken after the depletion of cryogen. The cryogen depleted on 15 May 2009, and shortly afterward a two-month-
long calibration and characterization campaign was conducted. The array temperature and bias setpoints were
revised on 19 September 2009 to take advantage of lower than expected power dissipation by the instrument and to
improve sensitivity. The final operating temperature of the arrays is 28.7 K, the applied bias across each detector is 500
mV and the equilibrium temperature of the instrument chamber is 27.55 K. The final sensitivities are essentially the
same as the cryogenic mission with the 3.6 μm array being slightly less sensitive (10%) and the 4.5 μm array within 5%
of the cryogenic sensitivity. The current absolute photometric uncertainties are 4% at 3.6 and 4.5 μm, and better than
milli-mag photometry is achievable for long-stare photometric observations. With continued analysis, we expect the
absolute calibration to improve to the cryogenic value of 3%. Warm IRAC operations fully support all science that was
conducted in the cryogenic mission and all currently planned warm science projects (including Exploration Science
programs). We expect that IRAC will continue to make ground-breaking discoveries in star formation, the nature of the
early universe, and in our understanding of the properties of exoplanets.
We report on the final design and the fabrication status of LMIRcam - a mid-infrared imager/spectrograph that will
operate behind the Large Binocular Telescope Interferometer (LBTI) primarily at wavelengths between 3 and 5um (the
astronomical L- and M-bands). Within LMIRcam a pair of diamond-turned biconic mirrors re-images a ten arcsecond
square field onto a 1024x1024 HAWAII-1RG 5.1um cutoff array. The re-imaging optics provide two pupil planes for
the placement of filters and grisms as well as an intermediate image plane. Flexible readout electronics enable operating
modes ranging from high frame rate broadband imaging at the longest wavelengths to low background R=400
spectroscopy at shorter wavelengths. The LBTI will provide LMIRcam with a diffraction limited two-mirror PSF with
first null dictated by the 14.4 meter separation of the two LBT mirror centers (22.8 meter baseline from edge to edge).
KEYWORDS: Sensors, Electronics, Clocks, Infrared cameras, Telescopes, Data acquisition, Field programmable gate arrays, Space telescopes, Point spread functions, Human-machine interfaces
The L/M-band Infrared Camera (LMIRcam) is a first-generation imager being constructed for the Large Binocular
Telescope Interferometer, operating at 3-5 μm. Given the high sky background at these wavelengths, an
FPGA-based controller provides high-speed, flexible data acquisition. Originally designed for FORCAST, a mid-
IR camera/spectrograph built by Cornell University, the controller was modified to interface with LMIRcam's
Teledyne HAWAII-1RG 1024×1024 array. In order to facilitate the different operating modes and increased array
size, we have developed a modified version of the FORCAST device driver, reconfigured the FPGAs, altered the
control software, and plan to implement a window mode.
The Magellan Clay telescope is a 6.5m Gregorian telescope located in southern Chile at Las Campanas
Observatory. The Gregorian design allows for an adaptive secondary mirror that can be tested off-sky in a
straight-forward manner. We have fabricated a 85 cm diameter aspheric adaptive secondary with our
subcontractors and partners. This secondary has 585 actuators with <1 msec response times. The chopping
adaptive secondary will allow low emissivity AO science. We will achieve very high Strehls (~98%) in the
Mid-IR AO (8-26 microns) with the BLINC/MIRAC4 Mid-IR science camera. This will allow the first
"super-resolution" and nulling Mid-IR studies of dusty southern objects. We will employ a high order (585
mode) pyramid wavefront sensor similar to that used in the Large Binocular Telescope AO systems. The
relatively high actuator count will allow modest Strehls to be obtained in the visible (~0.8μm). Our visible
light AO (Vis AO) science camera is fed by an advanced ADC and beamsplitter piggy-backed on the WFS
optical table. The system science and performance requirements, and an overview the design, interface and
schedule for the Magellan AO system are presented here.
The Large Binocular Telescope Interferometer, a thermal infrared imager and nulling interferometer for the LBT, is
currently being integrated and tested at Steward Observatory. The system consists of a general purpose or universal
beamcombiner (UBC) and three camera ports, one of which is populated currently by the Nulling and Imaging Camera
(NIC). Wavefront sensing is carried out using pyramid-based "W" units developed at Arcetri Observatory. The system
is designed for high spatial resolution, high dynamic range imaging in the thermal infrared. A key project for the
program is to survey nearby stars for debris disks down to levels which may obscure detection of Earth-like planets.
During 2007-2008 the UBC portion of the LBTI was assembled and tested at Steward Observatory. Initial integration of
the system with the LBT is currently in progress as the W units and NIC are being completed in parallel.
The Nulling and Imaging Camera is the main science camera being developed for use with the LBTI. The camera has two science channels: an 8-13 um wavelength Nulling Optimized Mid-Infrared Camera (NOMIC) and a 3-5 micron imaging camera, dubbed LMIRCam. The NIC cryostat also houses a K band fast readout camera (Phasecam) to sense
phase variations between the LBT apertures and carry out closed loop correction. The design, comprising these three components, is housed in a single cryostat cooled by a mechanical pulse-tube coldhead. The optical design uses diamond-turned biconical mirrors to realize diffraction-limited performance in a compact space. A range of cryogenic actuators and alignment mechanisms have been developed to carry out fine alignment of the interferometer and to feed
the several channels of NIC.
Planning is underway for a possible post-cryogenic mission with the Spitzer Space Telescope. Only Channels 1
and 2 (3.6 and 4.5 μm) of the Infrared Array Camera (IRAC) will be operational; they will have unmatched
sensitivity from 3 to 5 microns until the James Webb Space Telescope is launched. At SPIE Orlando, Mighell
described his NASA-funded MATPHOT algorithm for precision stellar photometry and astrometry and presented
MATPHOT-based simulations that suggested Channel 1 stellar photometry may be significantly improved by
modeling the nonuniform RQE within each pixel, which, when not taken into account in aperture photometry,
causes the derived flux to vary according to where the centroid falls within a single pixel (the pixel-phase
effect). We analyze archival observations of calibration stars and compare the precision of stellar aperture
photometry, with the recommended 1-dimensional and a new 2-dimensional pixel-phase aperture-flux correction,
and MATPHOT-based PSF-fitting photometry which accounts for the observed loss of stellar flux due to the
nonuniform intrapixel quantum efficiency. We show how the precision of aperture photometry of bright isolated
stars corrected with the new 2-dimensional aperture-flux correction function can yield photometry that is almost
as precise as that produced by PSF-fitting procedures. This timely research effort is intended to enhance the
science return not only of observations already in Spitzer data archive but also those that would be made during
the Spitzer Warm Mission.
The Large Binocular Telescope with its single mount design and adaptive optics integrated into the secondary mirrors, provides a unique platform for mid-infrared interferometry. The Large Binocular Telescope Interferometer is designed to take advantage of this platform, specifically for extrasolar planet detection in preparation for the Terrestrial Planet Finder mission. The instrument consists of three components: a general purpose or Universal Beam Combiner (UBC) which preserves the sine condition of the array, a nulling interferometer for the LBT (NIL) to overlap the two beams and sense phase variations, and a nulling-optimized mid-infrared camera (NOMIC) for detection of the final images. Here we focus on the design and tolerancing of the UBC. The components of the system are currently being fabricated and the instrument is planned to be integrated with the LBT in 2006.
The Infrared Array Camera (IRAC) on Spitzer Space Telescope includes four Raytheon Vision Systems focal plane arrays, two with InSb detectors, and two with Si:As detectors. A brief comparison of pre- flight laboratory results vs. in-flight performance is given, including quantum efficiency and noise, as well as a discussion of irregular effects, such as residual image performance, "first frame effect", "banding", "column pull-down" and multiplexer bleed. Anomalies not encountered in pre-flight testing, as well as post-flight laboratory tests on these anomalies at the University of Rochester and at NASA Ames using sister parts to the flight arrays, are emphasized.
KEYWORDS: Calibration, Infrared telescopes, High dynamic range imaging, Space telescopes, Stray light, Infrared cameras, Stars, Infrared radiation, Space operations, Telescopes
We describe the astronomical observation template (AOT) for the Infrared Array Camera (IRAC) on the Spitzer Space Telescope (formerly SIRTF, hereafter Spitzer). Commissioning of the AOTs was carried out in the first three months of the Spitzer mission. Strategies for observing fixed and moving targets are described, along with the performance of the AOT in flight. We also outline the operation of the IRAC data reduction pipeline at the Spitzer Science Center (SSC) and describe residual effects in the data due to electronic and optical anomalies in the instrument.
The Infrared Array Camera (IRAC) is one of three focal plane instruments on board the Spitzer Space Telescope. IRAC is a four-channel camera that obtains simultaneous broad-band images at 3.6, 4.5, 5.8, and 8.0 μm in two nearly adjacent fields of view. We summarize here the in-flight scientific, technical, and operational performance of IRAC.
Prior to launch, the Spitzer Space Telescope (SST) secondary focus mechanism was set to a predicted desired in-orbit focus value. This predicted setting, determined from double-pass cold chamber measurements and calculated ground-to-orbit corrections, had an uncertainty greater than the required in-orbit focus accuracy. Because of concern about the potential for failure in a cryogenic mechanism affecting all Spitzer instruments, it was required that any focus correction be made in a set of moves directly from the initial to the desired setting. The task of determining the required focus moves fell to IRAC (Infrared Array Camera), the instrument most affected by and sensitive to defocus. To determine the focus directly from examining images at a fixed focus, we developed two methods, "Simfit" and "Focus Diversity" (W. F. Hoffmann, et. al.1). Simfit finds the focus by obtaining the best match between observed images and families of simulated images at a range of focus settings. Focus Diversity utilizes the focal plane curvature to find the best fit of the varied image blur over the focal plane to a model defocus curve. Observations of a single star at many field locations in each of the four IRAC bands were analyzed before and during the refocus activity. The resulting refocus moves brought the focus close to the specified requirement of within 0.3 mm from the desired IRAC optimum focus. This is less than a "Diffraction Focus Unit" (λx(f/2)) of 0.52 mm at the SST focus at the shortest IRAC band (3.58 microns). The improvement in focus is apparent in both the appearance and the calculated noise-pixels of star images.
We describe the process by which the NASA Spitzer Space Telescope (SST) Cryogenic Telescope Assembly (CTA) was brought into focus after arrival of the spacecraft in orbit. The ground rules of the mission did not allow us to make a conventional focus sweep. A strategy was developed to determine the focus position through a program of passive imaging during the observatory cool-down time period. A number of analytical diagnostic tools were developed to facilitate evaluation of the state of the CTA focus. Initially, these tools were used to establish the in-orbit focus position. These tools were then used to evaluate the effects of an initial small exploratory move that verified the health and calibration of the secondary mirror focus mechanism. A second large move of the secondary mirror was then commanded to bring the telescope into focus. We present images that show the CTA Point Spread Function (PSF) at different channel wavelengths and demonstrate that the telescope achieved diffraction limited performance at a wavelength of 5.5 μm, somewhat better than the level-one requirement.
Because of concern over possible failure of the SIRTF cryogenic focus mechanism in space, the SIRTF Project Office has directed that the focus should be set before launch so that the telescope arrives in orbit as close to optimum focus as possible. Then focus evaluation and determination of any required focus change to achieve best focus must be carried out without the conventional approach of a focus slew. For these tasks we have created two methods: Simfit and Focus Diversity. Simfit is a procedure for comparing an observed stellar image with a family of simulated point-source images with a range of focus settings. With a sufficiently accurate as-built telescope model for creating the simulated images, the focus offset and direction can be accurately and unambiguously determined because of the change in image appearance with defocus. Focus diversity takes advantage of the variation of best-focus setting over the instrument's focal plane due to focal plane curvature and tilt and offsets between different instrument channels. By plotting an image quality parameter, such as noise-pixels, for observed stars at several positions on the focal plane versus a defocus variable, the focus error and direction can be determined. We have developed an efficient program for carrying out these procedures. The validity of this program has been successfully confirmed using point-source images observed with three bands of the IRAC camera during a double-pass optical test of SIRTF in a Ball Aerospace cryogenic test chamber. The two procedures are described and are illustrated with these results
The Infrared Array Camera (IRAC) is one of three focal plane instruments in the Space Infrared Telescope Facility (SIRTF). IRAC is a four-channel camera that obtains simultaneous images at 3.6, 4.5, 5.8, and 8 microns. Two adjacent 5.12x5.12 arcmin fields of view in the SIRTF focal plane are viewed by the four channels in pairs (3.6 and 5.8 microns; 4.5 and 8 microns). All four detector arrays in the camera are 256x256 pixels in size, with the two shorter wavelength channels using InSb and the two longer wavelength channels using Si:As IBC detectors. We describe here the results of the instrument functional and calibration tests completed at Ball Aerospace during the integration with the cryogenic telescope assembly, and provide updated estimates of the in-flight sensitivity and performance of IRAC in SIRTF.
This paper describes the principal optical results of the "End to End" test conducted on the SIRTF Cryogenic Telescope Assembly. Test system focus was located using images from the shortest wavelength science instrument, IRAC, much as it will be on-orbit. Deep out-of-focus images were used to determine the system wavefront by Phase Retrieval methods with heritage to Hubble Space Telescope work. This work has been used to update the SIRTF optical models and aid in predicting the on-orbit performance of the observatory. Images made with other assemblies able to observe in the test (IRS, PCRS) were used to verify their function and co-focus to the IRAC established position. Image jitter was analyzed warm and cold, with visible images captured by the PCRS instrument and cold, with images captured by the IRAC instrument.
The Large Binocular Telescope (LBT), with dual 8.4 m optics on a common mount, is unique among the large-aperture interferometers. Deformable secondaries on the telescope capable of adaptive atmospheric correction allow beam combination after only three warm reflections. The design allows the implementation of two powerful uses of interferometry: suppression of starlight (or nulling interferometry) and wide-field imaging (or Fizeau interferometry). Nulling will allow detection of extrasolar planetary systems (from either zodiacal emission or giant planets) down to solar system-equivalent levels for nearby stars. This will dramatically increase our knowledge of the prevalence and make-up of extrasolar planetary systems. Fizeau interferometry will allow imaging of even complex structure at the resolution of a 22.8 m telescope. To implement these two powerful techniques the University of Arizona and NASA are collaborating to build the Large Binocular Telescope Interferometer (LBTI) a cryogenic instrument capable of sensitive interferometric observations in the infrared.
The Infrared Array Camera (IRAC) is one of three focal plane instruments in the Space Infrared Telescope Facility (SIRTF). IRAC is a four-channel camera that obtains simultaneous images at 3.6, 4.5, 5.8, and 8 microns. Two adjacent 5.12 X 5.12 arcmin fields of view in the SIRTF focal plane are viewed by the four channels in pairs (3.6 and 5.8 microns; 4.5 and 8 microns). All four detectors arrays in the camera are 256 X 256 pixels in size, with the two shorter wavelength channels using InSb and the two longer wavelength channels using Si:As IBC detectors. We describe here the results of the instrument functionality and calibration tests completed at Goddard Space Flight Center, and provide estimates of the in-flight sensitivity and performance of IRAC in SIRTF.
The Infrared Array Camera (IRAC) is one of three science instruments that will fly aboard the Space Infrared Telescope Facility mission scheduled for launch in December, 2001. This paper summarizes the `as built' design of IRAC along with important integration and testing results.
A key technology in NASA's plans for a Terrestrial Planet Finder is nulling interferometry in the thermal infrared. This technique suppresses the overwhelming light from a star in order to study its immediate surroundings. To further develop nulling interferometry we have built the BracewelL Infrared Nulling Cryostat (BLINC). The instrument is designed to achieve high precision cancellation of an artificial source in the lab and of starlight on the telescope. Our goal is to achieve suppression of > 10,000 both with a laser source and a broadband source over a 20% bandwidth. This is sufficient for ground-based observations with even short baseline interferometers since the finite diameter of the star does not allow suppression greater than that for most nearby sources. BLINC uses two parts of the MMT pupil to create an interferometer of 2.7 m diameter elements separated by 4 m. Active compensation for phase variations between the two apertures will be used to maintain the cancellation of the starlight in the presence of atmospheric turbulence. When combined with the adaptive secondary of the MMT to remove high order aberrations, BLINC will be able to achieve suppression of 10,000. This will allow detection of zodiacal dust around nearby stars as faint as 10 times the solar level and detection of companions large than 10 Jupiter masses for systems less than one billion years old. BLINC serves as a prototype for nulling with the Large Binocular Telescope which will be able to see zodiacal dust as faint as solar level and Jupiter mass or larger companions. Thus both in technological and scientific background BLINC will help begin the search for Earth-like planets.
Recent developments in the design and fabrication of very light-weight all-composite mirrors have made possible extremely well balanced, thermally stable, structures which distort very little when cooled. One such mirror is the Composite Optics, Incorporated all-composite mirror, M4, which has a 45.7 cm diameter and 3 cm thickness and a spherical surface of radius-of-curvature 2.92 meters. Relative figure measurements of this mirror were made with the Steward Observatory Light Weight Mirror Low Temperature Test Chamber over a temperature range from 20 C to -60 C using a 10.6 μm interferometer. The measurements show a remarkably small increase in the rms figure departure from a spherical surface of fixed radius-of-curvature of 0.27 μm over the 80 C temperature change. The effective coefficient of thermal expansion over this temperature range derived from the focus change is 0.66 x 10-6/C, close to that of fused silica.
We have achieved reliable, repeatable coatings of solgel- deposited glass on Carbon Fiber Reinforced Plastic sandwich panel mirrors of sizes 10 to 90 cm. Very lightweight CFRP panels up to 2 meter size have been produced with high thermal and temporal stability, but replicated surface accuracy limited to millimeter applications. The solgel coatings of 20 to 200 micrometers thickness provide a surface which can be optically ground, polished, and figured to provide IR and optical quality mirrors. We have demonstrate this with both flat and concave spherical mirrors.
The Space IR Telescope Facility (SIRTF) contains three focal plane instruments, one of which is the IR Array Camera (IRAC). IRAC is a four-channel camera that provides simultaneous 5.12 X 5.12 arcmin images at 3.6, 4.5, 5.8 and 8 microns. The pixel size is 1.2 arcsec in all bands. Two adjacent fields of view in the SIRTF focal plane are viewed by the four channels in pairs. All four detector arrays in the camera are 256 by 256 pixels in size, with the two short wavelength channels using InSb and the two longer wavelength channels using Si:As IBS detectors. The IRAC sensitivities at 3.6, 4.5, 5.8, and 8.0 microns are 6, 7, 36, and 54 microJanskys, respectively. Two of the most important scientific objectives of IRAC will be to carry out surveys to study galaxy formation and evolution during the early stage of the Universe, and to search for brown dwarfs and superplanets.
KEYWORDS: Signal processing, Sensors, Digital signal processing, Cameras, Electrons, Field effect transistors, Telescopes, Clocks, Filtering (signal processing), Astronomy
MIRAC2 was built for ground-based astronomy at Steward Observatory, University of Arizona and Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics. It utilizes a Rockwell HF-16 128 X 128 arsenic-doped silicon blocked-impurity-band hybrid array with a wavelength range of 2 to 28 micrometers operating in a liquid helium-cooled cryostat at 5K. Reflective optics, and externally actuated detector and pupil slides provide a variety of magnification and focal ratio settings without opening the cryostat. Nominal settings at the NASA IRTF and UKIRT give diffraction-limited imaging with .34 and .27 arcsec/pixel, respectively. The sensitivity on the IRTF at 11.7 micrometers , 10 percent bandwidth filter, chop-nod, source in one beam, 1 sigma, one minute total time is 25 mJ/arcsec surface brightness and 43 mJy point source.
We have successfully used nulling interferometry at 10 μm wavelength to interferometrically suppress a star's radiation. This technique was first proposed by Bracewell 20 years ago to image extra-solar planets and is now the basis for proposed space-borne instruments to search for Earth-like extra-solar planets and their spectroscopic signatures of habitability and life. In our experiment, the beams from two 1.8 m telescopes of the Multiple Mirror Telescope were brought into registration at a semi-transparent beamsplitter, and the images made coincident on an infrared array detector capable of taking rapid short exposure images. The atmospheric fluctuations caused the phase difference between the beams to fluctuate, changing the total flux of the star seen in the image plane. When the atmosphere caused the wavefronts to be exactly out of phase the entire stellar Airy pattern disappeared. For the unresolved star α Tauri the cancellation was such that a companion only 0.2 arcsec from the star and 25 times fainter would appear equal in intensity to the nulled star. The residual flux was spread into a wide halo suggesting the cause of this flux was imperfect cancellation of the aberrated wavefronts. To increase the precision of nulling beyond this first step several sources of error need to be addressed. We discuss the control of errors due to amplitude, polarization, chromatic differences, stellar leak, and sampling time. Improvements such as active phase tracking, adaptive optics, and cooled optics will increase the achievable gain of nulling interferometry and allow it to be used on fainter objects.
We have been able to utilize silicon monoxide (SiO) as a refractory coating to improve on the replicated figure of composite optics made from carbon fiber reinforced plastic (CFRP) sandwich panels. We apply an evaporative coating of SiO to the surface of the mirror and polish that coating to obtain the desired figure for the complete mirror. We have developed this technique to allow the use of CFRP optics which are both stable and have a low areal density. This represents a novel use of thin film vacuum coating to produce an optical substrate rather than a simple reflective or protective overcoating and represents an advance in producing thick SiO coatings (10 - 40 micrometers) over large areas (25 - 60 cm).
KEYWORDS: Sensors, Signal processing, Telescopes, Cameras, Optical filters, Space telescopes, Infrared detectors, Digital signal processing, Electronics, Signal detection
MIRAC is a Mid InfraRed Array Camera built for ground-based astronomy by Steward Observatory at the University of Arizona, Harvard Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics, and the Center for Advanced Space Sensing at the Naval Research Laboratory. It utilizes a Hughes Aircraft Co. 20 X 64 pixel arsenic-doped silicon impurity band conduction hybrid array with a capacitance transimpedance amplifier readout (CRC 444A) operating at 10 K in a liquid helium-cooled cryostat. It has an operating wavelength range of 2 to 26 micrometers . Using 20 parallel readout lines and frame rate of 10 KHz, the array exhibits both low noise and good linearity at high background flux, which is essential for 10 and 20 micrometers ground-based observing conditions. It has a peak quantum efficiency of 0.42 at 22 micrometers , and a well size of 120,000 electrons. MIRAC has been operated on the Steward Observatory 2.3-meter and NASA 3-meter IRTF telescopes a number of times for observing a variety of objects including infrared-luminous galaxies, planetary nebulae, star forming regions, and young stellar objects. The NEFD of MIRAC on the IRTF at 11.7 micrometers is 0.1 Jy/square-arcsec in one second of integration on-source, four seconds total time, including nodding and chopping off-source.
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