Scintillation-based fiber dosimeters are a powerful tool for minimally invasive localized real-time monitoring of the dose rate during Low Dose Rate (LDR) and High Dose Rate (HDR) brachytherapy (BT). This paper shows the design, fabrication and characterization of such dosimeters, consisting of scintillating sensor tips attached to polymer optical fiber (POF). The scintillating sensor tips consist of inorganic scintillators, dispersed in a polymer host. We present the design, fabrication and characterization of those sensor tips. The manufacturing is done by means of a custom compression and transfer moulding process implemented on a commercially available hot embossing machine. We show the manufacturing of 237 sensor tips, which are subsequently attached to the end of the POF using UV-curable adhesive. Finally, we perform dosimetry experiments in water phantoms which show a great potential for in-vivo dosimetry for brachytherapy.
Modern process industry, particularly (petro)chemical industry faces, many challenges pertaining to sustainability. In this respect, more stringent regulations on reducing emissions are motivating plant and process owners to implement condition monitoring and predictive maintenance strategies. Bolted flange connections equipped with sealing gaskets, for example, can be a significant source of emissions and their performance remains often ambiguous under modern standards. Gasket stress is a key performance indicator of a bolted flange connection, which is typically approximated using methods that rely on many simplifications and assumptions. This study investigates the potential of using fiber-optic sensors, more specifically fiber Bragg gratings, as strain sensors to estimate gasket stress in bolted flange connections with gaskets. To the best of our knowledge, it is the first time that said gaskets are instrumented with fiber Bragg gratings. For our experiments, we submit these gaskets to relevant mechanical loads, both in a laboratory setting and in a realistic industrial environment. We analyze the relation between the fiber Bragg grating response and the applied mechanical load to define transfer functions that allow estimating the gasket stress and hence the sealing performance of the flange connection.
Optical fibers are often used as a medium for nonlinear optical processes, especially for frequency doubling or second harmonic generation (SHG). Obtaining efficient SHG requires phase matching, which is challenging to achieve with ultrashort laser pulses. For that purpose we study how specific optical fiber designs can facilitate said phase matching. In this report we show that multi-step index fibers, which can be considered as an approximation of graded index fibers, can provide for simultaneous modal phase matching (MPM) and group velocity matching (GVM). That leads to an efficient pulsed second harmonic generation in optical fiber, which will open new opportunities for fiber sensing domain as well, where bio-sensing, medical sensing and strain sensing can be in the target.
We give an overview of our recent progress on the design and proof-of-concept demonstration of interfacing components for short-distance optical interconnects with a particular emphasis on their fabrication through two-photon polymerization-based laser direct writing. We show mode field conversion tapers printed on single-mode optical fibers for easy and efficient interfacing to various photonic integrated circuits, circular and square planar waveguide structures with V-groove inspired alignment structures for easy coupling to fibers, microlenses and fan-out diffractive optical elements.
We report on highly reflective fiber Bragg gratings in photonic crystal fibers (PCF) that excite two types of cladding mode resonances. We consider two hexagonal lattice PCF structures with a similar air-filling fraction (0.4) but different lattice pitch values (2.5 and 3.6 μm). We demonstrate both experimentally and numerically that the lattice parameters of the microstructure influence the spectral location of the resonances and the spectral span that they occupy. For the PCF with the lattice pitch of 2.5 μm, we demonstrate its application for surface plasmon-enhanced refractometry of waterbased solutions with potential for biosensing applications.
We give an overview of our recent progress on interfacing components for short-reach optical interconnects fabricated through two-photon polymerization-based laser direct writing. We show mode field conversion tapers printed on single-mode optical fibers for easy and efficient interfacing to various photonic integrated circuits, circular and square planar waveguide structures with V-groove inspired alignment structures for easy coupling to fibers and fan-out diffractive optical elements. For all these components, we present the process flow from optical design and simulation over laser direct writing fabrication and metrology to proof-of-concept demonstration.
We present our latest results on the design and fabrication of mode-field conversion tapers for low-loss optical interconnects. These structures are fabricated by means of two-photon polymerization-based 3D nanoprinting. We experimentally demonstrate that our 3D nanoprinted downtapers outperform conventional lensed fibers for low-loss edge coupling of single-mode fibers with SOI, Si3N4 and InP-based photonic integrated circuits. They are also more robust as they allow butt coupling rather than free-space coupling. Non-linear taper profiles allow shortening the length of the downtapers while keeping their performance. We also demonstrate 3D nanoprinted uptapers that allow for relaxation of the lateral misalignment tolerances.
Selective liquid filling of photonic crystal fibers opens up possibilities for tailoring their guidance properties or adding new functionalities. Among other techniques, 3D printing on optical fiber tips using two-photon polymerization has been applied for selective infiltration of individual air holes in photonic crystal fibers with liquids. However, in existing techniques care should be taken during the post-print photoresist development in order to avoid penetration of the developer solution into the air channels intended for filling. This limits the applicability of those methods. The technique proposed in this paper ensures that contamination of the air holes with the developer solvent is prevented. We apply two-photon polymerization lithography followed by an injection-cure-cleave procedure while omitting the post-exposure development. Selective filling of two fiber types is demonstrated. The first is a birefringent fiber with two rows of 3.6 μm air holes and one row of 0.9 μm holes in between. Another PCF has a hexagonal arrangement of 1.4 μm air holes. Our approach allows repeated selective filling to realize the infiltration of more than one liquid. Optofluidic fiber devices filled with one or more liquids have potential applications in the nonlinear optical domain and in the field of fiber sensing.
There are several techniques available for fabrication of phase-shifted gratings in single mode fibers. Yet, very few studies have examined inscription of such gratings in photonic crystal fibers (PCFs). In this paper, we report what we believe to be the first demonstration of the phase-shifted grating inscription in PCFs using a phase mask and a beam stop. The grating inscription is demonstrated for three hexagonal lattice PCFs with different air-filling fractions. The transmission spectra of the fabricated gratings reveal phase shift resonance peaks with a -3 dB bandwidth between 40 and 80 pm which is up to 4 times narrower than of the resonances of uniform Bragg gratings inscribed in the same fibers.
Fiber Bragg grating (FBG) inscription methods based on femtosecond laser sources are becoming increasingly popular owing to the (usually) non-linear nature of the index modification mechanism and to the resulting advantages. They allow, for example, fabricating fiber gratings that can survive temperatures exceeding 700°C, which can be an asset in the domain of fiber sensing. However applying femtosecond laser based grating fabrication to microstructured optical fibers (MOFs) can be challenging due to the presence of the air holes in the fiber cladding. The microstructured cladding not only impedes light delivery to the core in most cases, but also causes a non-uniform intensity distribution in the MOF core. To deal with these challenges we present a modeling approach that allows simulating how the reflectivity of the grating and the nature of the index modulation are affected by the inscription conditions. We rely on transverse coupling simulations, empirical data and coupled mode analysis to model the induced index change and the resulting grating reflectivity. For IR femtosecond grating inscription we show that due to the intensity redistribution in the core region, irreversible Type II index changes can be induced in a MOF at laser peak intensities below the Type II threshold for step-index fibers. The resulting non-uniform induced index change has repercussions on the reflection spectrum of the grating as well. Our coupled mode analysis reveals, for example, that although the average index change in the core region can be high, the partial overlap of the core mode with the index change region limits the reflectivity of the grating.
In this work, the reverse replication of circular micro grating structures on glass substrates is implemented using an ultra-violet curable resin and a polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) mold which has the same structure as the original circular grating master. Two different techniques (“double PDMS replication” and “polymer- PDMS replication”) are employed to fabricate those reversed circular micro grating structures. Surface profiling measurements show that in case of the polymer-PDMS replication the dimensions of the resulting circular grating structures closely approximate those of the master, while the grating height is slightly decreased in case of the double PDMS replication technique, mainly due to the use of the releasing agent. For both methods, the grating slopes of the circular gratings are almost unchanged, leading to the desired optical performance. The two techniques are quite useful for more accurate reverse replications of micro optical and photonic structures.
New methods for fiber Bragg grating inscription in optical fibers use femtosecond laser sources, which can induce refractive index changes even in non-photosensitive fibers and which allow achieving gratings that remain stable at high temperatures. The index change takes place as a result of a highly non-linear multi-photon absorption process. Although such gratings were successfully inscribed in conventional fibers, there are still challenges involved when attempting to fabricate femtosecond gratings in microstructured optical fibers (MOFs). The air holes are usually impeding the delivery of optical power to the core region, which results in a lower grating writing efficiency. In this paper we report on our numerical computations that aim to estimate the influence of the MOF’s holey cladding on the induced index change during interferometric grating inscription with an infrared (IR) femtosecond laser source. For high power femtosecond laser pulses at 800 nm the refractive index change in silica stems from a highly non-linear five photon absorption process. Using empirical data on refractive index changes from literature and intensity distribution data from our transverse coupling simulations we propose an approach to reconstruct the non-linear refractive index modification in the MOF core region. We then study the influence of the MOF angular orientation on the induced index change and we model the impact of MOF tapering as a possible way to increase the grating writing efficiency.
Microstructured optical fibers (MOFs) are a major achievement in the field of optical fiber technology. Owing to their unprecedented design flexibility, MOFs have found numerous applications in various fields of photonics. By adapting the parameters of the holey cladding, MOFs with tailored dispersion properties, large mode area, endlessly single mode operation and high non-linear response can be designed and fabricated. This paper deals with designing MOFs with a specific microstructure that would allow increasing the efficiency with which fiber gratings can be photo-inscribed in a MOF. The air holes are usually impeding the delivery of optical power to the core region, which results in a lower grating writing efficiency. This problem is exacerbated when using IR femtosecond laser sources for the inscription, as the induced refractive index changes stem from a highly non-linear multi-photon absorption process and are hence very dependent on the optical intensity that actually reaches the MOF core. In this paper we first study regular hexagonal lattice MOFs to find a range of lattice parameters that would facilitate femtosecond grating inscription, considering the non-linear nature of the index change. To assess the influence of the microstructured cladding on the transverse delivery of light to the core region, we introduce a figure of merit to which we refer as ‘transverse coupling efficiency’ (TCE). Second, we evaluate the index changes that would be obtained when implementing a special type of holey structure that acts as a transversely focusing microstructure – known as Mikaelian lens – in the cladding of the MOF.
Transverse light propagation through the air holed cladding of microstructured optical fibers (MOFs) has recently attracted interest owing to its importance for several applications such as fiber grating writing, particle trapping in hollow core fibers, all optical switch devices, etc. The air holes in the MOF cladding region impede efficient delivery of transversely propagating light to the core region when the fiber is illuminated from the outside. To overcome this problem we designed MOFs with a gradient air holed cladding structure that will actually focus transversely propagating light to the fiber core. We used photonic crystal Mikaelian lenses (PCML) as focusing gradient media in the holey cladding. First, we considered and compared several PCML types with varying air hole diameter and air hole pitch, in both hexagonal and rectangular lattices. We studied the design rules of those structures and we carried out a frequency response analysis to identify the most efficient operational regions of the PCMLs. The polarization properties of the considered structures were investigated as well. Finally, we analyzed the transverse coupling properties of the MOF equipped with such a PCML structure in the cladding and we obtained a fiber that clearly focuses transversely incident light to its core region with a normalized focal intensity up to 18, whilst exhibiting good guiding properties.
Photonic Crystal Fibres (PCFs) are well known for allowing the implementation of specific waveguiding features that
cannot be achieved with conventional optical fibres. This results from the design flexibility of the holey structure in the
PCF cladding and/or core regions. Today PCFs have found applications for example in supercontinuum generation,
optical sensing and fibre lasers. They are now also being combined with fibre Bragg gratings, more specifically in the
fields of optical fibre sensing and all-fibre laser applications. In this contribution we discuss how we applied micro-optical
design methods based on commercially available software such as MODE Solutions and FDTD Solutions from
Lumerical Solutions, Inc. and COMSOL Multiphysics® combined with MATLAB® scripting and additional
optimization methods to develop microstructured fibres for three different purposes, i.e. PCF structures that facilitate
Bragg grating inscription, PCF structures that enable temperature insensitive pressure measurements and bendable PCFs
with a very large mode area for high power short pulse fibre lasers. For the three cases we describe the fibre design
methods and property simulations as well as the tolerance studies that take into account manufacturing imperfections as
well as possible variations in material parameters.
Photonic crystal fibers (PCFs) offer great design flexibility as their internal microstructure can be tailored to achieve a
wide range of optical guiding properties adapted to many different applications. Fiber Bragg grating fabrication in such
fibers is now extensively investigated to enable new fiber sensor and all-fiber laser applications. Grating writing in PCF
is not necessarily straightforward. This is due, to a large extent, to the air hole microstructure in the fiber cladding that
impedes the inscribing beam intensity to reach the fiber core in sufficient amounts. This issue is more pronounced for
multi-photon absorption based grating inscription techniques, for which the intensity of the light reaching the core is
crucial to induce the desired refractive index change.
We performed a numerical study of transverse light propagation through the cladding to the core for various hexagonal
lattice PCFs. A numerical tool based on commercial FDTD software was developed for that purpose. To assess the
influence of the PCF microstructured cladding, we defined a figure of merit to quantify the amount of laser light reaching
the core: the "transverse coupling efficiency" (TCE). We studied the influence of the hexagonal lattice parameters, in
particular the air hole radius and pitch, on the energy reaching the core for various angular orientations of the fiber with
respect to the impinging laser beam. We conducted this study for ultraviolet and infrared femtosecond laser sources. As a
result we have identified favorable PCF lattice parameters and a fiber orientation that would allow efficient femtosecond
grating inscription. We show that the microstructure of a PCF can not only have a limiting, but also a constructive
influence on the laser energy reaching the core of the fiber and thus on the efficiency with which gratings can be
inscribed.
One of the recent methods of grating inscription is based on inducing an array of highly localized index changes in the
silica core of a fiber by tightly focused high intensity laser pulses. There were already several reports of such point-by-point
gratings in conventional step index fibers. Applying this technique to photonic crystal fibers (PCFs) is still not
straightforward. The main reason is the air holed microstructure which distorts the wave front of the inscribing laser
beam and counters the focusing of the light in the core.
We propose a new concept of microstructure-assisted grating inscription in photonic crystal fibers by introducing a
focusing microstructure in the cladding of the fiber. We designed special types of photonic crystal fibers with a photonic
crystal Mikaelian lens (PCML) in their cladding. Such a PCML is the implementation of a conventional Mikaelian or
gradient index lens in a photonic crystal lattice. The effective index variation in a PCML is achieved via a variable air
hole radius. In a fiber that is equipped with a PCML the inscribing laser beam can be tightly focused to the fiber core.
This concept allows increasing optical power densities in the core of a PCF by an order of magnitude. We present a
numerical model of a PCF with a PCML designed for 800 nm wavelength 125 femtosecond laser pulses.
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