Iridium (Ir) is a refractory metal commonly seen in industrial applications, but has great potential for optical applications including metasurfaces. Metasurfaces are used to control the optical properties of an interface via sub-wavelength surface structures. These patterns require sharply defined features to create precise optical phase interactions. For high-temperature environments, most materials are insufficient candidates for metasurfaces because the sharpness of the surface structures are lost due to edge-rounding or oxidation. Ir is better suited for metasurface applications in high-temperature environments but the patterning of Ir using nanofabrication techniques has not been thoroughly investigated. In this work, Ir metasurfaces were fabricated and characterized for optical applications in the infrared.
Microlens arrays (MLA) are a critical component of avalanche photodiode (APD) technology, but their performance is rarely characterized or investigated independent of the photodetector. To understand how best to improve coupling, the MLA must be characterized and compared to other technologies on a fair and consistent basis. In order to investigate new designs and compare different types of microlens technologies, a custom microscope was built. This microscope was designed to image the MLA surface as well as its focused beam which required solutions to the following challenges: 6-axis manipulation of the sample, sub-micron positional resolution, perpendicular travel to the optical axis, brightfield imaging, multispectral imaging, image processing, uniform irradiance over the sample area, and calibrated absolute optical power measurements. This microscope design enables the focal length range to be mapped with sub-micron accuracy along the paraxial ray. The imaged beam spot is quantitatively analyzed in MATLAB for 1/e2 diameter and encircled energy, as well as qualitatively with complementary data sets. It was shown that Fresnel lens and plano-convex refractive MLA designs from various material groups could be compared equally in a side-by-side comparison.
Variable angle spectroscopic ellipsometry (VASE) was used to determine the thicknesses of polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA) on Si before and after etching with two different etchants (CF4 + O2 and Argon). Once a complete optical model for a base PMMA on Si sample was created, it was applied to all etched samples to determine thicknesses. Despite some minor changes to the optical behavior of PMMA caused by the Ar etching, our ability to fit to observed interference peaks remained unaffected. This technique allows for nanometer accurate thickness measurements, which is an improvement from current thickness measurement methods such as stylus profilometry.
Variable angle spectroscopic ellipsometry was used to determine the optical properties of n- and p-type GaAs over a doping range of 4.6×1016 to 9.3×1018 cm-3 and a spectral range of 190 nm to 30 μm. Increased doping concentration was observed to have several distinct effects on the samples’ optical properties: the band edge broadens and shifts to a higher energy; the E1 and (E1 + Δ1) absorption peaks blur together; the E2 absorption peak decreases; sub-bandgap, infrared absorption increases. Additionally, the doping effects are generally stronger for n-type than for p-type GaAs. These findings will help inform future design of optoelectronics.
Owing to their tunable electromagnetic properties, subwavelength structures such as metamaterials have enabled novel applications across fields of engineering. In particular, metal-insulator-metal (MIM) plasmonic metamaterials have demonstrated efficient light energy absorption based on localized surface plasmon resonances. Due to these properties, MIM plasmonic resonance structures present its potential applications for photon absorption or emission at elevated temperatures, such as thermophotovoltaics. However, majority of reported MIM plasmonic structures are built with materials with a lower melting point such as gold or silver. Therefore, there are needs to explore how refractory materials affect the resonance properties of MIM plasmonic structures for high-temperature applications. In this work, we numerically report MIM plasmonic metamaterials built with highly refractory materials. Based on finite-difference timedomain (FDTD) simulation results, light absorption of these metamaterials peaks as high as 99.9% at the wavelength of 8.3 μm. This strong, selective absorption is attributed to the localized surface plasmon resonance. The results of this study suggest that the applications of MIM plasmonic devices may be extended for higher-temperature environments.
KEYWORDS: Sensors, Antennas, Long wavelength infrared, Absorption, Dielectrics, Resonators, Infrared sensors, Chemical elements, Signal to noise ratio, Etching
Antenna coupled detectors break the intrinsic tradeoff between signal and noise by “collecting over a large area” and “detecting over a small area”. Most antenna coupled detectors in the infrared rely on a metal resonator structure. However, there are losses associated with metallic structures. We have demonstrated a novel long-wave infrared (LWIR) detector that combines a dielectric resonator antenna with an antimonide-based absorber. The detector consists of a 3D, subwavelength InAsSb absorber embedded in a resonant, cylindrical dielectric resonator antenna made of amorphous silicon. This architecture enables the antimonide detection element to shrink to deep subwavelength dimensions, thereby reducing its thermal noise. It is important to note that this concept only applies when (a) the detector noise is limited by bulk noise mechanisms with negligible surface leakage currents and (b) the dominant source of current in the device is due to dark current (such as diffusion) that scales with the volume of the detector. The dielectric resonator enhances the collection of photons with its resonant structure that couples incident radiation to the detector. We will present results on the absorption in structures with and without the dielectric resonator antenna. The signal to noise enhancement in the LWIR photodiodes integrated with the dielectric resonator antenna using radiometric characterization will be discussed.
III-V semiconductors have broad uses in optoelectronics due to their direct band gaps and high carrier motilities. GaAs(1- x)Bix and TlxGa(1-x)As ternary alloys are of interest for light emitting, light absorbing and other applications (e.g. communication lasers, photovoltaics, and high speed transistors) in the infrared spectrum due to their decreased bandgap relative to GaAs. While GaAs has been extensively studied, the optical properties of GaAsBi and TlGaAs are less documented and show significant variation with Bi and Tl content respectively. This study characterized the optical properties of GaAsBi and TlGaAs films of varying Bi and Tl composition using variable angle spectroscopic ellipsometry (VASE) in a range of temperatures from 25 °C – 300 °C. GaAsBi films were grown between 3.3% and 6.5% bismuth. TlGaAs films were grown between 1.7% and 2.7% thallium. Modeling using a superposition of Gaussian oscillators fit to the dielectric functions of sample layers was used to separate film optical properties from the pseudooptical properties of the sample. The analysis in this study directly compares the inclusion of the two largest III-V constituent atoms, Bi and Tl. Comparison of the refractive index and absorption coefficient of samples was done over a spectral range of 0.5 eV to 5 eV (250 nm to 2500 nm). This region displays the absorption edge corresponding to the bandgap of the material, which is then correlated to the incorporation of Bi and Tl in the samples. This characterization allows for better modeling of these alloys for both a fundamental understanding of their properties and for their inclusion in future devices.
Thermophotovoltaics (TPVs) are a potential technology for waste-heat recovery applications and utilize IR sensitive photovoltaic diodes to convert long wavelength photons (>800nm) into electrical energy. The most common conversion regions utilize Gallium Antimonide (GaSb) as the standard semiconductor system for TPV diodes due to its high internal quantum efficiencies (close to 90%) for infrared radiation (~1700nm). However, parasitic losses prevent high conversion efficiencies from being achieved in the final device. One possible avenue to improve the conversion efficiency of these devices is to incorporate metallic photonic crystals (MPhCs) onto the front surface of the diode. In this work, we study the effect of MPhCs on GaSb TPV diodes. Simulations are presented which characterize a specific MPhC design for use with GaSb. E-field intensity vs. wavelength and depth are investigated as well as the effect of the thickness of the PhC on the interaction time between the e-field and semiconductor. It is shown that the thickness of MPhC has little effect on width of the enhancement band, and the depth the ideal p-i-n junction is between 0.6μm and 2.1μm. Additionally, simulated results demonstrate an increase of E-field/semiconductor interaction time of approximately 40% and 46% for a MPhC thickness of 350nm and 450nm respectively.
This work demonstrates metamaterial (MM) selective thermal emitters for potential use with energy harvesting
photodiodes, such as thermophotovoltaic cells. Preliminary structures have been designed, simulated, and fabricated
using CST Microwave Studio and microfabrication techniques including electron beam evaporation, atomic layer
deposition, and electron beam lithography, respectively. Samples were tested to determine the effect of top layer metal
thickness on the absorption of these devices. Preliminary simulation and testing was also performed to design a device
for operation at 500°C.
Through the application of a bias voltage, metamaterials can dynamically change their response, opening up new
technological possibilities. Combining design elements from three common metamaterial patterns, we have created a
metamaterial polarizing filter that will transmit all polarization orientations equally when in the static mode. When a
bias voltage is applied, the filter will minimize the transmission of x-polarized light in the wavelength band of interest.
Progress has been made on creating a sufficiently conductive metamaterial to enable the dynamic mode, as well as on
incorporating several filters into a monolithic stack. Fabrication methods and transmission results for the required
substrates will be discussed.
Split spectrum photovoltaics, where incident light is divided onto multiple cells on the basis of wavelength, are
an exciting recent development in the solar energy field. This technology has the potential to exceed record conversion
efficiencies by utilizing a large number of p-n junctions while mitigating the constraints that plague monolithic cells:
lattice matching and current matching. Each cell in a split spectrum system can have a different lattice constant
(allowing for more combinations of materials) and to have different operating currents (allowing for more combinations
of band spacing).
In this work, we examine a split spectrum system utilizing a single spectrum splitting device (a dichroic filter)
to divide the solar spectrum onto two cells. Whereas many split spectrum designs use numerous filters to direct light
onto single junction cells, in this system each cell is composed of multiple active junctions. Each cell is then tailored to
absorb a portion of the solar spectrum. The combination of the two cells allows for four, five, or more active junctions
while maintaining lattice and current matching conditions in each cell.
A number of different cutoff frequencies for the dichroic filter are examined. Each cutoff frequency
corresponds to its own combination of ideal band placements for both the shorter and longer wavelength cells. Materials
corresponding to those band placements are examined to determine if any combinations can satisfy lattice matching
parameters; designs which do are then simulated using TCAD Sentaurus.
In this paper, we investigate extending the operational wavelength of thermophotovoltaic diodes. Our calculations demonstrate that employing a barrier structure can reduce the diffusion current by several orders of magnitude, reducing dark current and improving the overall function of the TPV diode for room temperature operation. We first investigated GaSb/InAs type–II superlattice structures with monovalent barriers targeting wavelength cut-offs of five microns. Simulations were used to optimize the band structure energy levels for superlattice materials and to align the energy bands between different layers in the device. We examine the difference in IV curves between barrier and non-barrier structures for a five micron (Eg=0.248 eV) diode with a barrier of 300 meV.
In this paper, we demonstrate a high operating temperature (HOT) quantum dot-in-a-well (DWELL) infrared
photodetector with enhanced normal incidence (s-polarization) radiation photocurrent. The s-to-p polarization ratio
was increased to 50%, compared to the 20% in conventional quantum dot detectors. This improvement was achieved
through engineering the dot geometry and the quantum confinement via post growth capping materials of the
quantum dots (QDs). The effect of the capping procedures was determined by examining the dot geometry using
transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and s-to-p polarization induced photocurrent in the DWELL structure
photodetector. The TEM image shows a quantum dot with a reduced base of 12 nm and an increased height of 8 nm.
The infrared photodetectors fabricated from this material shows a peak photodetectivity of 1×109 cmHz1/2/W at 77K
for a peak wavelength of 4.8 μm and 1×107 cmHz1/2/W at 300K for a peak wavelength of 3.2 μm. The dark current
density is as low as 2×10-4A/cm2 and the photocurrent gain is 100 at the optimal operating bias.
We report on the testing of a set of InAs/GaSb multicolor strained-layer superlattice photodetectors and Dotin-
Well detectors grown with InAs dots in InGaAs/GaAs wells fabricated by the Center for High Technology
Materials at the University of New Mexico. These devices are 2-color devices sensitive to near-IR and mid-IR
wavelengths. The wavelength sensitivities of these devices are a function of the applied forward and reverse bias.
We present measurements of the dark current and relative spectral response of these photodetectors measured
at both cryogenic and room temperatures.
We report on low strain quantum dot infrared photodetectors (QDIP) with 80 dot in a well (DWELL) stacks. These
QDIPs have been grown with lattice matched Al0.1Ga0.9As barriers and GaAs wells allowing a large number of stacks to
be grown leading to an increased absorption volume. The QDIPs show a strong spectral response that varies
significantly with applied bias, with four distinct peak wavelengths ranging from 5.5μm to 10.0μm. The highly tunable
nature of the intrinsic responses makes these QDIPs very attractive as multispectral imagers in the MWIR and LWIR
regions. The spectral diversity of these QDIPs has been exploited using an algorithm to produce a highly versatile
algorithmic spectrometer. The algorithm assigns a specific weighting factor to each of the intrinsic responses and then
sums these weighted responses to achieve any desired spectral shape. Triangular narrowband filters have been
synthesised in this way with full width at half maximums (FWHM) as narrow as 0.2μm. The QDIPs can be used to
image objects in the MWIR and LWIR regions by measuring the photocurrent generated at each specific bias and
summing them using the calculated weighting factors for every wavelength of interest. This technique has been
successfully used to capture the radiated power from a blackbody source through IR filters with different centre
wavelengths and bandwidths as a function of wavelength in the LWIR and MWIR regions.
In this paper, we report some of our recent results on improving the operating temperature of dots-in-a-well
(DWELL) infrared photodetectors. This was achieved by engineering the dot geometry and the interrelated quantum
confinement by varying the growth conditions and composition of the subsequent capping of the quantum dots
(QDs). The influence of these conditions was determined by examining the optical properties of the QDs directly
and indirectly with their function in a DWELL IR photodetector. Spectral response was observed until 250K with
spectral response peak at 3.2μm, and the peak detectivity is 1×109 cmHz1/2/W at 77K and ~ 1e8 cmHz1/2/W at 250K.
By varying the external bias, the DWELL heterostructure allows for the manipulation of the operating wavelength.
This tunability is a critical stepping stone towards creating multicolor imaging systems that can be used to take
images at multiple wavelengths from each pixel in a focal plane array.
μWe report the demonstration of multi-spectral quantum dots-in-a-well infrared photo-detectors through the coupling of
incident light to resonant modes of surface plasmons. The integration of a surface plasmon assisted cavity with the detector
results in shifting the peak wavelength of absorption of the detector to that of the resonant wavelength of the cavity. The
cavity consists of a square lattice structure with square holes in it. A wavelength tuning of 8.5 to 9 μm was observed,
by changing the pitch of the fabricated pattern forming the cavity. Polarization sensitive detectors can be fabricated by
breaking the symmetry of the lattice. This is achieved by stretching the lattice constants along the x and y directions. A
DWELL detector with resonant frequency at 6.8 μm where the response of the 0 ° polarization is twice as strong as the 90°
polarization is reported. This technique, in principle, is detector agnostic and shows promise in fabrication of multi-spectral
focal plane arrays (FPA).
Quantum dot infrared photodetectors (QDIP) have established themselves as promising devices for detecting infrared (IR) radiation for wavelengths <20μm due to their sensitivity to normal incidence radiation and long excited carrier lifetimes. A limiting factor of QDIPs at present is their relatively small absorption volume, leading to a lower quantum efficiency and detectivity than in quantum well infrared photodetectors and mercury cadmium telluride based detectors. One means of increasing the absorption volume is to incorporate a greater number of quantum dot (QD) stacks, thereby increasing the probability of photon capture. Growth of InAs/InGaAs dot-in-a-well (DWELL) QDIPs with greater than 10 stacks is challenging due to the increased strain between layers, leading to high dark current. It is known that strain can be reduced in QDIPs by reducing the width of the InGaAs well and incorporating a second well consisting of GaAs and barriers consisting of AlGaAs. A number of InAs/InGaAs/GaAs DWELL QDIPs with 30-80 stacks have been grown, fabricated and characterised. Dark current in these layers appears to be constant at given electric field, suggesting strain does not increase significantly if the number of QD stacks is increased. IR spectral measurements show well defined peaks at 5.5μm, 6.5μm and 8.4μm. In this work a comparison between dark current, noise, gain, responsivity and detectivity in these layers is presented and compared to existing data from conventional DWELL QDIPs.
We report the fabrication of low strain quantum-dots-in-a-double-well (DDWELL) infrared photodetector where the net
strain on the system has been reduced by limiting the total indium content in the system. The detector consists of InAs
dots embedded in In0.15Ga0.85As and GaAs wells with a Al0.1Ga0.9As barrier, as opposed to In0.15Ga0.85As wells and a
GaAs barrier in standard dots-in-a-well (DWELL) detector. The structure was a result of multilevel optimization involving
the dot, well layers above and below the dot for achieving the desired wavelength response and higher absorption, and
the thickness of the barriers for reduction in dark current. Detector structures grown using solid source molecular beam
epitaxy (MBE) were processed and characterized. The reduction in total strain has enabled the growth of higher number
of active region layers resulting in enhanced absorption of light. The detector shows dual color response with peaks in
the mid-wave infrared (MWIR) and the long-wave infrared (LWIR) region. A peak detectivity of 6.7×1010 cm.√
Hz/W
was observed at 8.7μm. The detector shows promise in raising the operating temperature of DWELL detectors, thereby
enabling cheaper operation.
This paper discusses recent and future advancements in the field of quantum dots-in-a-well (DWELL) focal plane arrays (FPAs). Additionally, for clarity sake, the fundamentals of FPA figures of merit are reviewed. The DWELL detector represents a hybrid between a conventional quantum well photodetector (QWIP) and a quantum dot (QD) photodetector (QDIP). This hybridization, where the active region consists of QDs embedded in a quantum well (QW), grants DWELLs many of the advantages of its components. This includes normally incident photon sensitivity without gratings or optocoupers, like QDIPs, and reproducible control over operating wavelength through 'dial-in recipes' as seen in QWIPs. Conclusions, drawn by the long carrier lifetimes observed in DWELL heterostructures using femtosecond spectroscopy, have recently backed up by reports of high temperature operation results for DWELL FPAs. This paper will conclude with a preview of some upcoming advances in the field of DWELL focal plane arrays.
The most difficult aspects in manufacturing a reflective slit substrate are achieving a precisely fabricated slit
surrounded by an optically flat surface. A commonly used technique is to polish a metal substrate that has a slit cut by
electric discharge machine (EDM) methods. This process can produce 'optically flat' surfaces; however, the EDM can
produce a slit with edge roughness on the order of 10 microns and a RMS field roughness of ~1 micron. Here, we
present a departure from these traditional methods and employ the advantages inherent in integrated circuit fabrication.
By starting with a silicon wafer, we begin with a nearly atomically flat surface. In addition, the fabrication tools and
methodologies employed are traditionally used for high precision applications: this allows for the placement and
definition of the slit with high accuracy. If greater accuracy in slit definition is required, additional tools, such as a
focused ion beam, are used to define the slit edge down to tens of nanometers. The deposition of gold, after that of a
suitable bonding layer, in an ultra-high vacuum chamber creates a final surface without the need of polishing. Typical
results yield a surface RMS-roughness of approximately 2nm. Most of the techniques and tools required for this process
are commonly available at research universities and the cost to manufacture said mirrors is a small fraction of the
purchase price of the traditional ones.
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