Reflective optical systems typically combine precise aligned mirrors, housings, interface structures et cetera. For MICADO (Multi-AO Imaging Camera for Deep Observations), a first-light instrument for ELT, Fraunhofer IOF realize several optical sub-systems, including ten freeform shaped metal optics for the Collimator, the high-resolution Imager, the low-resolution Imager and the Camera.
In this paper, the challenges of freeform manufacturing and metrology will be described. For manufacturing of those mirror substrates suitable technologies, as slow tool servo (STS) and fast tool servo (FTS) diamond turning and for further correction (e.g., magnetorheological finishing) and smoothing steps (e.g., chemical-mechanical polishing), sub-aperture tools are required. For interferometry of freeform shaped optical surfaces, computer generated holograms including reference fiducials are realized. After manufacturing the mirror substrates, the optical surface will be coated with a high-reflective gold coating.
Most telescope mirrors of the European ELT shall have protected silver coatings that are highly reflective across all astronomic wavelength bands from the UV (370 nm) to the far infrared. Another aspect is that the coatings shall be frequently cleaned in situ, so they must be highly durable against abrasion and chemical agents such as sulfur and salt. However, they also must be easy to strip with a non-toxic etchant before each recoating. We identify trades and optimize silver coating recipes with different protection layer materials and thicknesses to meet these partly contradictory objectives. A test coating campaign is ongoing.
Light-absorbing black coatings are indispensable for many different optical applications. Thin-film interference coatings can be flexibly adapted to different wavelengths. To generate an effective (> 99 %) light absorption of an interference coating, the interference effect needs to be combined with a well-defined absorption of the layer’s material. On this basis, different black absorber coatings were developed and deposited on optical components for actual applications. A wideband black absorber for 400 -1000 nm wavelength on a space spectrometer slit, a bi-directional black coating for a single wavelength in the VIS, which can be wet-chemically etched for micro-patterning, and a black aperture for NIR and SWIR light on the exit face of a dispersion prism are presented.
Quantum communication is considered to be a key feature for secure communication e.g. between government organisations or other institutions with high security requirements. Therefore, the QuNET initiative was founded. It focuses on developing a quantum-secure German governmental agency network based on quantum key distribution (QKD). Free-space optical (FSO) links are a valuable part of infrastructure because they can be deployed temporarily, such as at summits or to bridge the last miles where there is no fiber infrastructure. In particular, high-throughput telescopes are of great importance as optical antennas for terrestrial networks or links between mobile nodes. The paper describes the development and manufacturing of an unobscured, afocal four-mirror metal telescope which is already tested for ground-based quantum communication. The off-axis system, operating with a full telescope aperture of 200 mm, a magnification of 20x, and a FOV (field of view) of 3.5 mrad and is designed to yield diffraction-limited performance for an operational wavelength of 810 nm and 1550 nm. The addressed wavefront error-target of the whole system amounts to 66 nm RMS (root mean square). The use case of the telescope implied an operational temperature range of -40 °C up to +50 °C. Therefore, an athermal system is realized using an aluminum-silicon alloy substrate material combined with a nickel-phosphorus polishing layer that allows to reach the required surface quality of the mirrors. To simplify the alignment of the telescope, its mechanical concept relies on a snap-together approach using two substrates with two optical mirrors on a common substrate, each. The manufacturing chain of these two so called mirror substrates is described in detail. That includes the CNC pre-manufacturing, ultra precision diamond turning and subsequent polishing steps. The resulting quality of the mirror substrates as well as of the telescope system is demonstrated by optical measurements using interferometric setups.
Joining technologies are of great importance for space-based applications. Given the very low environmental temperatures, high temperature differences, vacuum, and high acceleration loads during rocket launch, the (thermo-)mechanical requirements on the joining technologies are demanding. Plasma-activated bonding (PAB) and silicate bonding (SB) meet all these requirements. We developed PAB and SB to assemble an all-glass four-channel beam splitter. This development was initiated by a satellite mission concept, devoted to transient astronomy. Central part of this satellite mission is a novel beam splitter that divides the incoming telescope beam into four near infrared channels (λ = 800 − 1700 nm), by using a Kosters prism type design. As a final result, we built a demonstrator for the validation of the developed technological concept. Additional presentation content can be accessed on the supplemental content page.
The monitoring of anthropogenic CO2 by satellites (part of Copernicus, the European Union’s Earth Observation and Monitoring program) requires a special dispersive spectrometer. As a highly efficient light dispersing element, a Prism-Grating Prism (PG-P) optical element will operate in the program, mentioned above. Anti-reflection (AR) coatings and light blocking apertures are requested to suppress optical losses, to reduce stray light and to shape the beam. Beside the AR-coatings, deposition of “black” aperture as a coating directly on the PG-P element, allows to abstain a mechanical aperture. Thereby, reduced number of elements in the optical setup and therefore reduced payload of the satellite can be achieved. For this purpose, an antireflective coating inside a clear aperture combined with a light blocking and absorbing aperture-coating outside the clear aperture was realized. The developments shown in this contribution were performed for the application wavelength of 1590 - 1675 nm.
Several telescopes like VISTA or the ELT are using or will use silver coatings, replacing aluminum (Al). The advantage of silver is a higher overall reflectivity, in particular around 825 nm. Yet, silver must be protected by covering layer(s), which lowering the reflectivity in the blue/UV region. Therefore, ESO completed a 2-year development with Fraunhofer IOF under the objective of extending the wavelength range of high reflectivity to shorter wavelengths without decreasing the coating durability. The developed coatings have been examined by standardized tests like scratching sensitivity, peeling, salt mist and H2S gas. The quasi-standard in silver coatings for telescope mirrors was developed for the Gemini observatory and it uses nickel chromium nitride (NiCrNx) as interlayer between silver and the protective top layer(s), finished by a hard silicon nitride (Si3N4) layer of ~ 15 nm thickness. We replaced the NiCrNx by aluminium oxide (AlOx) and it led to higher reflectivity but low durability towards the salt mist test. This test is relevant for many large telescopes because of their proximity to oceans, causing salty airborne dust. By replacing the NiCrNx by a ruthenium-based layer and by optimizing the protection, the objective of extending the wavelength range of high reflectivity to shorter wavelengths without decreasing the coating durability could be achieved.
Telescope mirrors typically consist of glass-ceramic substrates coated with a thin layer of aluminum or protected silver. Airborne contaminants on such surfaces can significantly degrade their reflectivity, IR emissivity and light scattering properties and cause damage such as pinholes. After exposing mirror samples near the Very Large Telescope (VLT) on Cerro Paranal, we investigated the contaminant formation at the microstructural level using electron microscopy. We show contaminant damage mechanisms on aluminum coated compared to protected silver mirror samples.
The GALA (Ganymede Laser Altimeter) is one of eleven scientific instruments of the ESA mission JUICE (Jupiter Icy Moons Explorer) with the goal of exploring the icy moons of Jupiter, with a special interest in Ganymede. By its atmosphere, magnetic field, and water abundance, Ganymede is similar to Earth [1]. GALA is a laser altimeter that generates a surface profile with a resolution of < 15 cm based on an emitted laser pulse that is reflected by the surface of the moon 500 km away [2]. The mechanical development of the receiver telescope with an extremely thin-walled primary mirror (thickness 4-8 mm; diameter ~ 300 mm) was driven by tough boundary conditions. These are a small envelope and mass budget with high mechanical loads, such as a quasi-static acceleration of 120 g during rocket launch and a temperature range from -50 °C up to 150 °C, at the same time. The athermal design is based on the use of a silicon particle reinforced aluminum compound (AlSi40) and an amorphous nickel-phosphorous plating to allow various shape correction and polishing processes. Another challenge was the high radiation load of 1012 protons/cm2 @ 10 MeV. Fraunhofer IOF developed and qualified a gold HR coating based on nanolaminate with R < 98% @ 1064 nm and high resistance. Thus, almost all process steps from development through manufacturing to integration and characterization could be carried out at Fraunhofer IOF. With a shape deviation of 27 nm RMS of the primary mirror and 8 nm RMS of the secondary mirror, a system performance of 90% encircled energy could be achieved with a pupil radius of 38 µm. The telescope was handed over to HENSOLDT in spring 2020 and will start its eight-year journey to Jupiter in 2023.
Gold shows a very high reflectivity in the IR range. In addition, Au (and protected Au) is more robust than Ag (and protected Ag). Therefore, Au based coatings are of high interest. Common techniques for the deposition of optical Au coatings are sputtering and evaporation. In this contribution, both techniques, sputtering and evaporation, as well as unprotected and protected Au will be considered. A comparison of reflectivity between sputtered and evaporated Au-layers shows a slightly higher reflectivity for evaporated Au.
Beside reflectivity after coating, decrease of reflectivity due to interdiffusion at increased temperatures (250°C) between adhesion layer and the reflective Au-layer is considered. In case of space-based applications, interdiffusion in thin film coatings could be activated due to particles of lower energies. This phenomenon is not necessary tested by radiation tests, performed by applying particles of higher energy. By a sputterd TiOX adhesion layer underneath a protected Au-coating (protected by an Al2O3-Si3N4-laminate), resistance against interdiffusion, and the successful passing of radiation-, cleanability- and abrasion tests could be achieved. This high reflective coating (reflectivity of 98 % at 1064 nm) was applied to the different mirrors of the GALA-instrument.
An Èchelle-grating specifically developed for the space borne measurement of earth’s atmospheric CO2-concentration is presented. It has a line density of ~170L/mm and is manufactured on a thick crystalline silicon substrate using electron beam lithography. The echelle profile is realized using a highly anisotropic chemical etching process, which stops on the <111> crystallographic planes of the crystal. The established manufacturing process allows perfect linear grating facets with negligible corner rounding of the profile. The important property of showing a low polarization sensitivity of the diffraction efficiency is achieved by a special design and technology for applying the gold coating of the grating which intentionally leaves one grating facet uncoated.
For ground- and spaced based applications, Ag coated reflectors are indispensable because of their high reflectivity. The transport, assembling and storage of these reflectors takes a long time, before they are finally commissioned for the actual applications. To endure this period without a decrease of reflectivity, protective coatings with a final layer, which offers a high resistance to aqueous solutions and a low mechanical stress should be used. These criteria were taken into account for the selection of a final layer for a protected Ag-coating, which was applied for reflectors utilized in the CRIRES+- instrument (an IR spectrograph used at the VLT). Reactively sputtered Al2O3, SiO2 and Si3N4 layers were investigated with regard to these criteria. In aqueous (basic) solutions, the investigated Si3N4 layers are more stable than the SiO2 layers, and the SiO2 layers are more stable than the Al2O3 layers. This shows the influence of the intrinsic material properties. The mechanical stress of the sputtered layers depends on the deposition conditions and thus on the selected parameters. A Si3N4 layer with a high resistance to aqueous solutions also offers a low and stable mechanical stress. Therefore, the deposition-parameters which have been used for this layer were applied for sputtering the final layer of the protected Ag-coating for the reflectors.
Order sorting filters had to be coated for the CRyogenic InfaRed Echelle Spectrograph upgrade (CRIRES+)-instrument, a high-resolution IR spectrograph to be set up at ESO’s Very Large Telescope in Chile. Therefore SiO2 was chosen as material with low refractive index. Si and Ge have been investigated as materials with high refractive index, whereby Si has been chosen for the application of the coating. Three types of high-pass filters were deposited with transmission bands starting at 0.96μm, 1.47μm and 2.9μm. These filters need to block effectively all wavelengths between 0.5 μm and the respective band. Therefore, in the blocking range, an optical density above four, or above three for the filter starting at 2.9 μm respectively, had to be achieved. The filter-coatings also needed to survive thermal cycling down to 65K while only introducing a small wave front error. The lower total thickness, compared to coatings consisting of other materials, and the low film-stress are favorable properties for coatings deposited onto prisms and other more complex optical components.
Time durability and environmental stability of silver-coated glass mirrors improve if silver layer is protected by a transparent thin film coating. The choice of the protecting layer material and of the methods for mirror manufacturing influences the mirror optical and mechanical properties. This work reports on a systematic study of silver mirrors overcoated by silicon oxide, nitride and oxy-nitrides. Variable angle spectroscopic ellipsometry was implemented to get an insight on metal-dielectric interface of the coatings. The results have been analyzed considering the coating deposition conditions and physical-chemical properties of the dielectric materials used as protective layers.
High-reflective coatings are indispensable in order to manufacture mirrors with highest possible reflectivity. The maximum reflectivity can be achieved by all-dielectric coatings; however, the spectral bandwidth of these mirrors is limited. For astronomical applications metal based coatings (Al, Au, Ag) are commonly applied, as they allow high reflectivity and at the same time a broad spectral bandwidth.
The optical system of the hyperspectral imager of the Environmental Mapping and Analysis Program (EnMAP) consists of a three-mirror anastigmat (TMA) and two independent spectrometers working in the VNIR and SWIR spectral range, respectively. The VNIR spectrometer includes a spherical NiP coated Al6061 mirror that has been ultra-precisely diamond turned and finally coated with protected silver as well as four curved fused silica (FS) and flint glass (SF6) prisms, respectively, each with broadband antireflection (AR) coating, while the backs of the two outer prisms are coated with a high-reflective coating. For AR coating, plasma ion assisted deposition (PIAD) has been used; the high-reflective enhanced Ag-coating on the backside has been deposited by magnetron sputtering. The SWIR spectrometer contains four plane and spherical gold-coated mirrors, respectively, and two curved FS prisms with a broadband antireflection coating. Details about the ultra-precise manufacturing of metal mirrors and prisms as well as their coating are presented in this work.
In order to manufacture mirrors metal based coatings (Al, Au and Ag) are applied, as they enable a high reflectivity and at the same time a broad spectral bandwidth. Of all metals, Ag provides the highest reflectivity from VIS to IR.
Silver is a noble metal. However, corrosion activators (e.g. S and Cl) can lead to corrosion. Thus, a protective layer is required to prevent the corrosion and sustain the high reflectivity of the mirror. However, damage of the Ag-coating can occur, even in the case of protected-Ag. Inhomogeneous film growth of the protective layer can lead to a permeation of corrosion activators and thus to a damage of the Ag. But also the deposition of impervious protective layers is not sufficient for long-term environmental stability. Hygroscopic air borne particles can weaken the protection and therefore subsequently lead to a permeation of corrosion activators and thus to a damage of the Ag.
These damage mechanisms lead to criteria for a durable and efficient protection. AlOxNy and nanolaminates have been tested with respect to these criteria. In particular the protection based on nanolaminates shows a great potential for the protection of Ag. In addition, also the optical performance can be improved by UV-enhancement based on different nanolaminates.
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