Ground reference data are important for understanding and characterizing angular effects on the images acquired by
satellite sensors with off-nadir capability. However, very few studies have considered image-based soil reference data for
that purpose. Compared to non-imaging instruments, imaging spectrometers can provide detailed information to
investigate the influence of spatial components on the bidirectional reflectance distribution function (BRDF) of a mixed
target. This research reported in this paper investigated soil spectral reflectance changes as a function of surface
roughness, scene components and viewing geometries, as well as wavelength. Soil spectral reflectance is of particular
interest because it is an essential factor in interpreting the angular effects on images of vegetation canopies. BRDF data
of both rough and smooth soil surfaces were acquired in the laboratory at 30° illumination angle using a Specim V10E
imaging spectrometer mounted on the University of Lethbridge Goniometer System version 2.5 (ULGS-2.5).
The BRDF results showed that the BRDF of the smooth soil surface was dominated by illuminated pixels, whereas the
shaded pixels were a larger component of the BRDF of the rough surface. In the blue, green, red, and near-infrared
(NIR), greater BRDF variation was observed for the rough than for the smooth soil surface. For both soil surface
roughness categories, the BRDF exhibited a greater range of values in the NIR than in the blue, green, or red. The
imaging approach allows the characterization of the impact of spatial components on soil BRDF and leads to an
improved understanding of soil reflectance compared to non-imaging BRDF approaches. The imaging spectrometer is an
important sensor for BRDF investigations where the effects of individual spatial components need to be identified.
The CEOS Quality Assurance Framework for Earth Observation (QA4EO) depends critically on vicarious calibration or
cross-calibration to verify the post-launch radiometric calibration performance of satellite optical sensors. Reference
standard test sites constitute the only practical means of accomplishing this on a systematic basis. Members of the
CEOS WGCV IVOS are working with collaborators around the world to establish a core set of CEOS-endorsed,
globally-distributed, reference standard test sites, as well as to establish optimum methodologies for their
characterisation and use. This paper proposes a pilot project that would involve the concatenation of as many of the
CEOS-endorsed core reference standard test sites as possible during a given time period to generate updates for as many
satellite optical sensors as possible. The authors of this paper propose to serve as coordinators and recommend that key
specialists, whose identities will be hidden, will carry out the calibration processing, analysis, and comparisons.
A cross-calibration methodology has been developed using coincident image pairs from the Terra Moderate
Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS), the Landsat 7 (L7) Enhanced Thematic Mapper Plus
(ETM+) and the Earth Observing EO-1 Advanced Land Imager (ALI) to verify the absolute radiometric
calibration accuracy of these sensors with respect to each other. To quantify the effects due to different
spectral responses, the Relative Spectral Responses (RSR) of these sensors were studied and compared by
developing a set of "figures-of-merit." Seven cloud-free scenes collected over the Railroad Valley Playa,
Nevada (RVPN), test site were used to conduct the cross-calibration study. This cross-calibration approach
was based on image statistics from near-simultaneous observations made by different satellite sensors.
Homogeneous regions of interest (ROI) were selected in the image pairs, and the mean target statistics were
converted to absolute units of at-sensor reflectance. Using these reflectances, a set of cross-calibration
equations were developed giving a relative gain and bias between the sensor pair.
This paper provides a comprehensive list of prime candidate terrestrial targets for consideration as benchmark sites for the post-launch radiometric calibration of space-based instruments. The key characteristics of suitable sites are outlined primarily with respect to selection criteria, spatial uniformity, and temporal stability. The establishment and utilization of such benchmark sites is considered to be an important element of the radiometric traceability of satellite image data products to SI standards for use in the accurate monitoring of environmental change.
The paper presents the results of an extended analysis of image data sets acquired during the tandem-orbit configuration in 1999 for the purposes of radiometric cross-calibration of the Landsat-7 Enhanced Thematic Mapper Plus (ETM+) and Landsat-5 Thematic Mapper (TM) sensors. Earlier work focused on the tandem pair for the Railroad Valley Playa, Nevada (RVPN) site to tie down the Landsat-5 TM calibration based on the more accurate Landsat-7 ETM+ calibration. This paper describes new results based on as many as eight tandem image pairs. The additional tandem images are of vegetated areas for which little or no ground reference data were available. Increasing the number of tandem pairs yielded results for the Landsat 5 TM gain coefficients within approximately ± 1 % of the RVPN-based results in spectral bands 1, 2, 3 and 7, and within -2 % and -4 % of the RVPN-based results for spectral bands 4 and 5, respectively.
The ability to detect and quantify changes in the Earth's environment depends on satellites sensors that can provide calibrated, consistent measurements of Earth's surface features through time. A critical step in this process is to put image data from subsequent generations of sensors onto a common radiometric scale. To evaluate Landsat-5 (L5) Thematic Mapper's (TM) utility in this role, image pairs from the L5 TM and Landsat-7 (L7) Enhanced Thematic Mapper Plus (ETM+) sensors were compared. This approach involves comparison of surface observations based on image statistics from large common areas observed eight days apart by the two sensors. The results indicate a significant improvement in the consistency of L5 TM data with respect to L7 ETM+ data, achieved using a revised Look-Up-Table (LUT) procedure as opposed to the historical Internal Calibrator (IC) procedure previously used in the L5 TM product generation system. The average percent difference in reflectance estimates obtained from the L5 TM agree with those from the L7 ETM+ in the Visible and Near Infrared (VNIR) bands to within four percent and in the Short Wave Infrared (SWIR) bands to within six percent.
This paper reports on an investigation of radiometric calibration errors due to differences in spectral response functions between satellite sensors when attempting cross-calibration based on near-simultaneous imaging of common ground targets in analogous spectral bands. Five Earth observation sensors on three satellite platforms were included on the basis of their overpass times being within 45 minutes of each other on the same day (Landsat-7 ETM+; EO-1 ALI; Terra MODIS; Terra ASTER; Terra MISR). The simulation study encompassed spectral band difference effects (SBDE) on cross-calibration between all combinations of the sensors considered, using the Landsat solar reflective spectral domain as a framework. Scene content was simulated using ground target spectra for the calibration test sites at Railroad Valley Playa, Nevada and Niobrara Grassland, Nebraska. Results were obtained as a function of calibration test site, satellite sensor, and spectral region. Overall, in the absence of corrections for SBDE, the Railroad Valley Playa site is a "good" to "very good" ground target for cross-calibration between most but not all satellite sensors considered in most but not all spectral regions investigated. "Good" and "very good" are defined as SBDEs within +/- 3 % and +/- 1 %, respectively. Without SBDE corrections, the Niobrara test site is only "good" for cross-calibration between certain sensor combinations in some spectral regions. The paper includes recommendations for spectral data and tools that would facilitate cross-calibration between multiple satellite sensors.
This paper describes work towards building an integrated Earth sensing capability and focuses on the demonstration of a prototype in-situ sensorweb in remote operation in support of flood forecasting. A five-node sensorweb was deployed in the Roseau River Sub-Basin of the Red River Watershed in Manitoba, Canada in September 2002 and remained there throughout the flood season until the end of June 2003. The sensorweb operated autonomously, with soil moisture
measurements and standard meteorological parameters accessed remotely via land line and/or satellite from the Integrated Earth Sensing Workstation (IESW) at the Canada Centre for Remote Sensing (CCRS) in Ottawa. Independent soil moisture data were acquired from actual grab samples and field-portable sensors on the days of RADARSAT and
Envisat Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) data acquisitions. The in-situ data were used to help generate spatial soil moisture estimates from the remotely sensed SAR data for use in a hydrological model for flood forecasting.
In this study, we analyzed for the first time the potential of Getis statistics compared to the coefficient of variation for the study of the radiometric spatial uniformity and temporal stability of the Railroad Valley Playa, Nevada (RVPN) test site. We evaluated multi-sensor and multi-scale image data acquired for the RVPN, including four SPOT HRV images acquired in 1997 and 1998, five NOAA AVHRR images acquired in 1999, and one Landsat TM image acquired in 1998. The results show the potential and the importance of the synergy generated by these two methods for analyzing the radiometric spatial uniformity and temporal stability of the RVPN site. Getis statistics provide an excellent spatial analysis of the site while the coefficient of variation provides complementary information on the temporal evolution of the site.
This paper describes work towards building an integrated Earth sensing capability, in particular the demonstration of a prototype in-situ sensorweb in autonomous remote operation in the context of soil moisture monitoring. A five-node prototype sensorweb was deployed and tested at Bratt's Lake Station in Saskatchewan. The sensorweb operated autonomously and standard meterological parameters and soil moisture measurements were accessed remotely via satellite from the Integrated Earth Sensing Workstation (IESW) at the Canada Centre for Remote Sensing in Ottawa. The paper reports on the prototype sensorweb deployment in general and on soil moisture measurements in particular.
The Traceable Radiometry Underpinning Terrestrial- and Helio-Studies (TRUTHS) mission offers a novel approach to the provision of key scientific data wtih unprecedented radiometric accuracy for Earth Observation (EO) and solar studies, which will also establish well-calibrated reference targets/standards to support other SI missions. This paper will present the TRUTHS mission and its objectives. TRUTHS will be the first satellite mission to calibrate its instrumentation directly to SI in orbit, overcoming the usual uncertainties associated with drifts of sensor gain and spectral shape by using an electrical rather than an optical standard as the basis of its calibration. The range of instruments flown as part of the payload will also proivde accurate input data to improve atmospheric radiative transfer codes by anchoring boundary conditions, through simultaneous measurements of aerosols, particulates and radiances at various heights. Therefore, TRUTHS will significantly improve the performance and accuracy of Earth observation misison with broad global or operational aims, as well as more dedicated missions. The providision of reference standards will also improve synergy between missions by reducing errors due to different calibration biases and offer cost reductions for future missions by reducing the demands for on-board calibration systems. Such improvements are important for the future success of strategies such as Global Monitoring for Environment and Security and the implementation and monitoring of international treaties such as the Kyoto Protocol. TRUTHS will achieve these aims by measuring the geophysical variables of solar and lunar irradiance, together with both polarized and un-polarized spectral radiance of the Moon, and the Earth and its atmosphere.
Calibration is critical for useful long-term data records, as well as independent data quality control. However, in the context of Earth observation sensors, post-launch calibration and the associated quality assurance perspective are far from operational. This paper explores the possibility of establishing a global instrumented and automated network of test sites (GIANTS) for post-launch radiometric calibration of Earth observation sensors. It is proposed that a small number of well-instrumented benchmark test sites and data sets for calibration be supported. A core set of sensors, measurements, and protocols would be standardized across all participating test sites and the measurement data sets would undergo identical processing at a central secretariat. The network would provide calibration information to supplement or substitute for on-board calibration, would reduce the effort required by individual agencies, and would provide consistency for cross-platform studies. Central to the GIANTS concept is the use of automation, communication, coordination, visibility, and education, all of which can be facilitated by greater use of advanced in-situ sensor and telecommunication technologies. The goal is to help ensure that the resources devoted to remote sensing calibration benefit the intended user community and facilitate the development of new calibration methodologies (research and development) and future specialists (education and training).
Early in its mission, the Landsat-7 spacecraft was temporarily placed in a “tandem” orbit very close to that of the Landsat-5 spacecraft in order to facilitate the establishment of sensor calibration continuity between the Landsat-7 Enhanced Thematic Mapper Plus (ETM+) and Landsat-5 Thematic Mapper (TM) sensors. The key period for the tandem configuration was June 1-4, 1999, during which hundreds of nearly-coincident matching scenes were recorded by both the Landsat-7 ETM+ and, in cooperation with Space Imaging and international ground stations, the Landsat-5 TM as well. The paper presents a methodology for Landsat-7 ETM+ and Landsat-5 TM cross-calibration and results based on analysis of three tandem image pairs. The approach incorporates adjustments for spectral band differences between the two sensors. With the well- calibrated ETM+ as a reference, the tandem-based cross-calibrations for the three image pairs yield TM responsivities that are consistent to each other to within a few percent or better depending on the spectral band. Comparisons with independent methods and results obtained by other groups indicate that the tandem-based cross-calibration is in close agreement with the independent results in spectral bands 1-3 but compares less favourably in the other bands.
A single data set of spatially extensive hyperspectral imagery is used to carry out vicarious calibrations for multiple Earth observation sensors. Results are presented based on a data acquisition campaign at the newell County rangeland test site in Alberta in October 1998, which included ground-based measurements, satellite imagery, and airborne casi hyperspectral data. This paper present new calibration monitoring obtained for NOAA-14 AVHRR, OrbView-2 SeaWiFS, SPOT-4 VGT, Landsat-5 TM, and SPOT-2 HRV.
The paper introduces the concept that calibration/validation (cal/val) can play an essential role in bringing remote sensing to mainstream consumers in an information-based society, provided that cal/val is an integral part of a quality-assurance strategy. A market model for remote sensing is introduced and used to demonstrate that quality assurance is the key to bridging the gap between early adopters of technology and mainstream markets. The paper goes on to propose the semi-continuous monitoring of quality assurance and stability reference (QUASAR) sites as an important first step towards a cal/val infrastructure beneficial to mainstream users. Prospective QUASAR test sites are described.
In-flight absolute radiometric calibration is critical for multi-temporal and multi-sensor data comparisons. In the case of vicarious calibration of optical sensors based on ground-level measurements, the test site must be well characterized in spatial, radiometric, spectral, and temporal domains. Remotely sensed data acquired at other wavelengths can contribute to a baseline understanding of ground targets and provide insight into the usefulness of such targets for in-flight calibration of optical sensors. With these considerations in mind, multi-temporal ERS-1 SAR data have been obtained for White Sands, New Mexico, and Lunar Lake and Railroad Valley playas in Nevada. This paper reports on an initial examination of these SAR image data sets and the significant pattern changes observed in the scenes. It is concluded that surface roughness, soil moisture and run-off are major factors giving rise to the observed scene characteristics.
Surface reflectance retrieval from imaging spectrometer data has become important for quantitative information extraction in many application areas. In order to calculate surface reflectance from remotely measured radiance, radiative transfer codes play an important role for removal of the scattering and gaseous absorption effects of the atmosphere. The present study evaluates surface reflectances retrieved from airborne visible/infrared imaging spectrometer (AVIRIS) data using three radiative transfer codes: modified 5S (M5S), 6S, and MODTRAN2. Comparisons of the retrieved surface reflectance with ground-based reflectance were made for different target types such as asphalt, gravel, grass/soil mixture (soccer field), and water (Sooke Lake). The results indicate that the estimation of the atmospheric water vapor content is important for an accurate surface reflectance retrieval regardless of the radiative transfer code used. For the present atmospheric conditions, a difference of 0.1 in aerosol optical depth had little impact on the retrieved surface reflectance. The performance of MODTRAN2 is superior in the gas absorption regions compared to M5S and 6S.
Bidirectional reflectance factors (BRF) for a pecan orchard have been studied using Advanced Solid-State Array Spectrometer (ASAS) data acquired in the solar principal plane at altitudes of 2300 m and 5300 m above ground. In particular, the angular dependency of the BRF of different targets such as sunlit and shaded portions of the pecan tree, orchard floor, and soil (road) have been studied for viewing directions between -45 degrees and +45 degrees. The results indicate in general an increasing reflectance from the forward scattering direction to the backscattering direction. In addition, an increase in pixel size has significant effects on the surface BRFs.
A procedure is formulated to investigate the sensitivity of surface reflectances retrieved from satellite sensor data to uncertainties in aerosol optical properties. Aerosol optical characteristics encompassed in the study include the Junge parameter (i.e., spectral dependence), the imaginary part of the refractive index (i.e., aerosol absorption), and the aerosol optical depth. Key results for a wavelength of 0.550 micrometers are presented graphically in terms of accuracy requirements on the aerosol property under consideration for a 5 uncertainty in predicted surface reflectance.
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