Real-time intraoperative blood perfusion monitoring is an important aid for avoiding the anastomotic leaks (AL) in laparoscopic (‘keyhole’) surgery which in turn reduces patients’ length of hospitalization and healthcare cost. The occurrence of AL at the rate of 11% to 15% (in rectal surgery, AL also varies with the surgical site) is a burden to patients and the healthcare system. Visualization of intraoperative surgical regions of interest is conducted by intravenous injection of the fluorescent contrast agent - indocyanine green (ICG). However, intravenously ICG administration is limited by non-linear fluorescence intensity with concentration, risk of an allergic reaction, and aggregation in aqueous solution. The fluorescence persists limits the frequency of repeated imaging and real-time assessments. Therefore, an alternative approach allowing label-free visualization would be advantageous. To this end, laser speckle contrast imaging (LSCI) is a potential alternative technique for real-time, label-free, and full-field blood flow monitoring techniques. We have developed a prototype medical device using a commercial rigid endoscope that allowed simultaneous white light imaging as well as blood perfusion monitoring using LSCI. The prototype was assessed for simultaneous white-light endoscopy and flow-monitoring of objects, such as; colored cardboard, a motility standard, occluded fingers, and oral mucosa of the human mouth - all positioned at various distances (e.g., 50mm, 70mm, and 100mm) from endoscope tip. We envision that this bimodal, label-free prototype allowing simultaneous blood flow measurement and white light imaging capability will prove a valuable tool for laparoscopic surgeries.
Nikola Krstajić, Bethany Mills, Ian Murray, Adam Marshall, Dominic Norberg, Thomas Craven, Philip Emanuel, Tushar Choudhary, Gareth O. Williams, Emma Scholefield, Ahsan Akram, Andrew Davie, Nik Hirani, Annya Bruce, Anne Moore, Mark Bradley, Kevin Dhaliwal
A highly sensitive, modular three-color fluorescence endomicroscopy imaging platform spanning the visible to near-infrared (NIR) range is demonstrated. Light-emitting diodes (LEDs) were sequentially pulsed along with the camera acquisition to provide up to 20 frames per second (fps) three-color imaging performance or 60 fps single color imaging. The system was characterized for bacterial and cellular molecular imaging in ex vivo human lung tissue and for bacterial and indocyanine green imaging in ex vivo perfused sheep lungs. A practical method to reduce background tissue autofluorescence is also proposed. The platform was clinically translated into six patients with pulmonary disease to delineate healthy, cancerous, and fibrotic tissue autofluorescent structures. The instrument is the most broadband clinical endomicroscopy system developed to date (covering visible to the NIR, 500 to 900 nm) and demonstrates significant potential for future clinical utility due to its low cost and modular capability to suit a wide variety of molecular imaging applications.
This talk will describe ratiometric imaging that can enhance visualisation of imaging probes against tissue autofluorescence. The Proteus project (www.proteus.ac.uk) aims to improve the detection and diagnosis of pulmonary infection and inflammation by employing targeted fluorescent molecules (Smartprobes) for labelling specific pathologies in tissue. However, imaging Smartprobes using a widefield fibred imaging system within the human lung can be challenging, in part, because both lung tissue and imaging probes have broad and overlapping emission spectra.. Weak signals from pathogens labelled with probes are easily missed due to the strong autofluorescent signatures of elastin and collagen that are abundantly present in the human lung. In addition to resolving probes from intrinsic fluorescence, multiple probes may have overlapping emission spectra themselves. This is particularly true for many well-established fluorophores that reside in the green region of the spectrum. If imaging with fluorophores that have distinct emission spectra is not possible or desirable, then spectral sorting of the signals can be carried out.
To successfully resolve probes from healthy tissue or to resolve similar probes from each other, acquiring full spectral information is not necessarily a requirement. We describe a simple widefield fibred imaging system consisting of a single colour LED illumination source (480nm) that enables ratiometric methods to enhance contrast between different fluorescent sources. Fluorescence from 480nm excitation of tissue as well as Smartprobes present on the tissue is split into two optical paths, above and below a cut-off wavelength, by a dichroic mirror. A triggered system of a monochrome CMOS camera and optical chopper allows collection of dual images of the same field of view from different parts of the spectrum. Contrast enhancement is carried out by post processing of the images, enabling us to interpret better the images produced both in autofluorescence and molecular imaging contexts.
Our widefield fibred imaging system is enabled by a novel optical fibre bundle developed by the University of Bath. The imaging fibres consist of 8100 cores with a 450µm corner to corner field of view and allows for multiplexed visualisation of pathologies within the lung. Biological targets, such as bacteria, that are of interest to clinicians, occupy one or two cores within the imaging fibre. We use 6µm Inspeck microspheres to demonstrate that the technique is shown to be able to distinguish targets analogous to bacteria. Also presented and demonstrated, is imaging and enhanced contrast of a biological model of labelled cells.
We present a spectroscopic system and an optical fibre probe which enable the full exploitation of the temporal evolution and spectral information of a weak Raman signal against background fluorescence and intrinsic fibre Raman. The system consists of a single multimode fibre and a CMOS single-photon avalanche diode (SPAD) line sensor capable of resolving and histogramming the arrival times of photons for 256 pixels simultaneously, offering improved signal to background compared to a non-time resolved measurement modality. The capabilities of the system are tested for intrinsic Raman standards such as cyclohexane and for pH sensing with functionalised gold nanoshells exploiting surface enhanced Raman scattering (SERS). The nanoshells are functionalised with the pH responsive 4-mercaptobenzoic acid (MBA) enabling demonstration of wide range pH sensing with low excitation power (< 1 mW) and short acquisition times (10 s), achieving a measurement precision of ± 0.07 pH units.
KEYWORDS: Fluorescence resonance energy transfer, Sensors, Luminescence, Single photon, Time resolved spectroscopy, CMOS sensors, Spectroscopy, Molecules, Molecular energy transfer, Time correlated photon counting
We demonstrate a new 512x16 single photon avalanche diode (SPAD) based line sensor with per-pixel TCSPC histogramming for time-resolved, time-zoomable, FRET spectroscopy. The line sensor can operate in single photon counting (SPC) mode as well as time-correlated single photon counting (TCSPC) and per-pixel histogramming modes. TCSPC has been the preferred method for fluorescence lifetime measurements due to its collection of full decays as a histogram of arrival times. However, TCSPC is slow due to only capturing one photon per exposure and large timestamp data transfer requirements for offline histogramming. On-chip histogramming improves the data rate by allowing multiple SPAD pulses (up to one pulse per laser period) to be processed in each exposure cycle, along with secondly reducing the I/O bottleneck as only the final histogram is transferred. This can enable 50x higher acquisition rates (up to 10 billion counts per second), along with time-zoomable histogramming operation from 1.6ns to 205ns with 50ps resolution. A broad spectral range can be interrogated with the sensor (450-900nm). Overall, these sensors provide a unique combination of light sensing capabilities for use in high speed, sensitive, optical instrumentation in the time/wavelength domain. We test the sensor performance by observation of fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET) between FAM and TAMRA and between EGFP and RFP FRET standards.
A photonic lantern is an adiabatic guided-wave transition between a multimode waveguide and a set of single-mode cores. As such, photonic lanterns facilitate the efficient coupling of multimode light to single-mode devices, examples of which include fibre Bragg gratings and arrayed waveguide gratings. In this work, we demonstrate that photonic lanterns based on tapered multicore fibres (MCFs) provide a potentially powerful new route to efficiently couple multimode states of light to a two-dimensional array of Single Photon Avalanche Detectors (SPADs). The SPAD array consists of a 32×32 square array of pixels, each of which has its own time to digital converter (TDC) for Time Correlated Single Photon Counting (TCSPC) with a timing resolution of 55 ps. For our application, the geometry of the MCF used to fabricate the photonic lantern was chosen such that each single mode in the MCF can be mapped onto an individual SPAD pixel. Upon injecting a broad supercontinuum signal into a 290 m long MCF via a photonic lantern, wavelength-to-time mapped spectra were obtained from all modes. We believe that the techniques we report here may find applications in areas such as Raman spectroscopy, coherent LIDAR, and quantum optics.
In vivo fibre optic fluorescence-based sensing is the use of synthesised fluorophores which interrogate the local environment via variation in their fluorescence emission, addressed through an optic fibre. However, the emission intensity is influenced by intrinsic factors such as photobleaching, quantitative factors like concentration dependency and background signals from autofluorescence of tissue and the delivery optical fibre. Many of these problems can be addressed by using time-resolved spectroscopy which measures variations in the fluorescent lifetime. We present a versatile fibre-based time-resolved spectrograph based on a CMOS SPAD line sensor capable of acquiring time and spectral resolved fluorescent lifetime data in a single measurement exploiting the time-correlated single photon counting (TCSPC) technique. It is shown that these TCSPC histograms enable the differentiation between autofluorescence of tissue and synthesized fluorophores, as well as the removal of unwanted fibre background through post-processed time-gating. As a proof-of-principle application the pH- dependent changes in fluorescent lifetime of 5-carboxyuorescein (FAM) are measured.
We demonstrate a fast two-color widefield fluorescence microendoscopy system capable of simultaneously detecting several disease targets in intact human ex vivo lung tissue. We characterize the system for light throughput from the excitation light emitting diodes, fluorescence collection efficiency, and chromatic focal shifts. We demonstrate the effectiveness of the instrument by imaging bacteria (Pseudomonas aeruginosa) in ex vivo human lung tissue. We describe a mechanism of bacterial detection through the fiber bundle that uses blinking effects of bacteria as they move in front of the fiber core providing detection of objects smaller than the fiber core and cladding (∼3 μm). This effectively increases the measured spatial resolution of 4 μm. We show simultaneous imaging of neutrophils, monocytes, and fungus (Aspergillus fumigatus) in ex vivo human lung tissue. The instrument has 10 nM and 50 nM sensitivity for fluorescein and Cy5 solutions, respectively. Lung tissue autofluorescence remains visible at up to 200 fps camera acquisition rate. The optical system lends itself to clinical translation due to high-fluorescence sensitivity, simplicity, and the ability to multiplex several pathological molecular imaging targets simultaneously.
We present a digital architecture for fast acquisition of time correlated single photon counting (TCSPC) timestamps from
32×32 CMOS SPAD array. Custom firmware was written to select 64 pixels out of 1024 available for fast transfer of
TCSPC timestamps. Our 64 channel TCSPC is capable of acquiring up to 10 million TCSPC timestamps per second over
a USB2 link. We describe the TCSPC camera (Megaframe), camera interface to the PC and the microscope setup. We
characterize the Megaframe camera for fluorescence lifetime imaging (FLIM) including instrument response function,
time resolution and variability of both across the array. We show a fluorescence lifetime image of a plant specimen
(Convallaria majalis) from a custom-built multifocal multiphoton microscope. The image was acquired in 20 seconds
(with average timestamp acquisition rate of 4.7 million counts per second).
Forster/Fluorescence resonant energy transfer (FRET) has become an extremely important technique to explore
biological interactions in cells and tissues. As the non-radiative transfer of energy from the donor to acceptor occurs
typically only within 1-10nm, FRET measurement allows the user to detect localisation events between protein-conjugated
fluorophores. Compared to other techniques, the use of time correlated single photon counting (TCSPC) to
measure fluorescence lifetime (FLIM) has become the gold standard for measuring FRET interactions in cells. The
technique is fundamentally superior to all existing techniques due to its near ideal counting efficiency, inherent low
excitation light flux (reduced photobleaching and toxicity) and time resolution. Unfortunately due to its slow acquisition
time when compared with other techniques, such as Frequency-domain lifetime determination or anisotropy, this makes
it impractical for measuring dynamic protein interactions in cells. The relatively slow acquisition time of TCSPC FLIM-FRET
is simply due to the system usually employing a single-beam scanning approach where each lifetime (and thus
FRET interaction) is determined individually on a voxel by voxel basis. In this paper we will discuss the development a
microscope system which will parallelize TCSPC for FLIM-FRET in a multi-beam multi-detector format. This will
greatly improve the speed at which the system can operate, whilst maintaining both the high temporal resolution and the
high signal-to-noise for which typical TCPSC systems are known for. We demonstrate this idea using spatial light
modulator (SLM) generated beamlets and single photon avalanche detector (SPAD) array. The performance is evaluated
on a plant specimen.
Fluorescence lifetime imaging microscopy (FLIM) is a well established approach for measuring dynamic signalling
events inside living cells, including detection of protein-protein interactions. The improvement in optical penetration of infrared light compared with linear excitation due to Rayleigh scattering and low absorption have provided imaging
depths of up to 1mm in brain tissue but significant image degradation occurs as samples distort (aberrate) the infrared
excitation beam. Multiphoton time-correlated single photon counting (TCSPC) FLIM is a method for obtaining
functional, high resolution images of biological structures. In order to achieve good statistical accuracy TCSPC typically
requires long acquisition times. We report the development of a multifocal multiphoton microscope (MMM), titled
MegaFLI. Beam parallelization performed via a 3D Gerchberg–Saxton (GS) algorithm using a Spatial Light Modulator
(SLM), increases TCSPC count rate proportional to the number of beamlets produced. A weighted 3D GS algorithm is
employed to improve homogeneity. An added benefit is the implementation of flexible and adaptive optical correction.
Adaptive optics performed by means of Zernike polynomials are used to correct for system induced aberrations. Here we present results with significant improvement in throughput obtained using a novel complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor (CMOS) 1024 pixel single-photon avalanche diode (SPAD) array, opening the way to truly high-throughput FLIM.
We present a simple method applicable to common-path Fourier domain optical coherence tomography (OCT) in which the tissue surface is used as the reference arm. We propose using aluminium hydroxide powder as a potential tissue surface diffuser to allow wider application of this method. This technique allows one to avoid placing a reference arm reflective element, such as glass plate, on tissue, and intrinsically avoids both coherent and complex conjugate mirror artifacts associated with glass plates. Aluminium hydroxide can be sprayed onto tissue using spray nozzles commonly found in endoscopes. The sensitivity of the tissue reference arm common-path OCT image is 94 dB for a 50-µs charge-coupled device integration time, and 97.5 dB for a 200-µs CCD integration time.
In this work the use of two identical QD SOAs to enhance the performance of swept laser system for OCT applications is
discussed, resulting in an increase in bandwidth up to 94nm. The combination of GaAs based QD SOAs and InP based
QW SOAs for realizing broad bandwidth sources for OCT system is described. For the swept laser source a 154nm
spectral bandwidth from 1193nm to 1347nm and an average power of 8mW is obtained and for the filtered ASE source a
225 nm bandwidth is demonstrated.
We describe a simple swept-laser design that characterizes the emission bandwidth, linewidth, spectral shape and output
noise. A short cavity Littmann configuration is used in which the semiconductor optical amplifier (SOA) lasing
wavelength is tuned by a galvanometer with an 830 grooves per mm diffraction grating. A 3dB coupler extracts light
from the cavity formed by the grating and end-mirror and the optical output uses to illuminate a balanced swept source
optical coherence tomography (SS-OCT) interferometer incorporating a circulator, 3dB coupler, dispersion compensator
and balanced detector. The SOA (SOA-1200-70-PM-20sB, Innolume GmbH) uses a novel III-V semiconductor
quantum-dot gain medium. ASE is emitted between 1150nm and 1300nm at a drive current of 700mA. When used in the
Littmann cavity laser a coherence length of about 10mm is produced, which is tunable over 60nm. The peak output
power is 12mW. The swept-laser has been incorporated into a fiber-based SS-OCT system and used to image biological
tissues. Axial resolution in air is 12 microns. Images of human palmar skin in-vivo are demonstrated, showing good
resolution and contrast, with the stratum corneum, epidermis, rete ridges and epidermal-dermal junction visualized.
We present a common path Fourier domain optical coherence tomography (FDOCT) setup where the reference signal
arises from multiple reflections within the sample arm. Two configurations are demonstrated. The first is based on a
reflective microscope objective while the second is based on a normal (refractive) microscope objective. The second
configuration is effectively a Mireau interferometer. We present sensitivity analysis of these setups and images of in vivo
skin. Advantages of both common path arrangements include: 1) the reference surface is not close to the sample surface
while keeping the optical path lengths matched (so the additional interferometer is not needed) and 2) the user can
independently control reference and sample arm power. Additionally, the configuration using the refractive objective
ensures that the coherence gate and focus gate always match. A disadvantage is that the reference arm power in certain
circumstances is not optimal (i.e. is not close to saturating the CCD). However, this issue can be removed by a light
source of sufficient output power. We believe the idea is scalable and therefore of interest to endoscopy applications.
We evaluate the performance of a cheap ultrasonic stage in setups related to optical coherence tomography. The stage
was used in several configurations: 1) optical delay line in optical coherence tomography (OCT) setup; 2) as a delay line
measuring coherence function of a low coherence source (e.g. superluminescent diode); 3) as a path length modulator in
optical coherence microscopy (OCM) setup and finally 4) in a dynamic focusing arrangement. We evaluate each
configuration and point to possible improvements either in setups or ultrasonic stage architecture. The results are as
follows: the stage is suitable for coherence function measurement of the light source and, with some limitations, dynamic
focusing. We found it unsuitable for OCT due to unstable velocity profile, while smaller step movement is required for
OCM imaging.
We present results of OCT and polarization-OCT applied to various ex vivo tissue samples and discuss related issues of image contrast, comparing in vivo and ex vivo preparations. Time-domain and frequency-domain OCT at 835nm and 1300nm have been applied to ex vivo skin and rabbit cornea. We can distinguish rabbit cornea epithelium for up to a month after excision. However, the skin loses all contrast upon excision and despite numerous experiments we cannot
distinguish epidermis, which is clearly visible in vivo. Using a time-domain system, birefringence is clearly visible for
decalcified tissue but can also be detected more weakly on fully mineralised tissue. Analysis suggests that demineralization increases the birefringence value.
Since the discovery of X rays radiotherapy has had the same aim - to deliver a precisely measured dose of radiation to a defined tumour volume with minimal damage to surrounding healthy tissue. Recent developments in radiotherapy such as intensity modulated radiotherapy (IMRT) can generate complex shapes of dose distributions. Until recently it has not been possible to verify that the delivered dose matches the planned dose. However, one often wants to know the real three-dimensional dose distribution. Three-dimensional radiation dosimeters have been developed since the early 1980s. Most chemical formulations involve a radiosensitive species immobilised in space by gelling agent. Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) and optical techniques have been the most successful gel scanning techniques so far. Optical techniques rely on gels changing colour once irradiated. Parallel beam optical tomography has been developed at the University of Surrey since the late 1990s. The apparatus involves light emitting diode light source collimated to a wide (12cm) parallel beam. The beam is attenuated or scattered (depending on the chemical formulation) as it passes through the gel. Focusing optics projects the beam onto a CCD chip. The dosimeter sits on a rotation stage. The tomography scan involves continuously rotating the dosimeter and taking CCD images. Once the dosimeter has been rotated over 180 degrees the images are processed by filtered back projection. The work presented discusses the optics of the apparatus in more detail.
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