We report on the demonstration of a laser-heated blackbody source fabricated from vertically aligned carbon nanotubes (VACNTs). This thermal source has potential use for performing micro- and nano- infrared spectroscopies because VACNTs have an extremely high melting point >3000 K, near unity emissivity across the infrared, and are compatible with lithographic microfabrication that can be exploited to maximize etendue of thermal emission.
The Earth radiation budget, a 40-year data record of the balance between solar radiation reaching the Earth and the amount reflected, and emitted from the Earth, is a key climate record for determining whether the Earth is warming or cooling. The need for accurate and cost-effective space-based measurements is driving the technology development of broadband bolometers and linear microbolometer arrays. We describe the performance of microfabricated bolometers and 1 x 32 linear microbolometer arrays developed for this purpose. To accurately measure the total outgoing radiation from 0.3 μm to over 100 μm, consisting of reflected shortwave solar radiation and emitted longwave thermal radiation, a vertically aligned carbon nanotube thermal absorber is incorporated with an electrical substitution heater that provides on-board calibration capabilities. A silicon nitride heat link is used to optimize response time while minimizing noise and the inequivalence between thermal and optical heating. The devices operate at room temperature with noise floors at nW/√Hz or lower at the measurement frequency of 7 Hz. Response times below 10 ms have been demonstrated in closed-loop operation using the electrical heater. Thin film Pt thermistors measure the change in microbolometer temperature. The deposition of the thin film thermistors has been optimized to maximize the temperature coefficient of resistance, which is key to meeting the demanding signal-to-noise requirement of this application.
We have designed a microfabricated planar absolute radiometer based on a vertically aligned carbon nanotube (VACNT) absorber and an electrical power substitution method. The radiometer is designed to operate at room temperature and to be capable of measuring laser powers up to 300 mW from 300 nm to 2300 nm with an expected expanded uncertainty of 0.06% (k = 2). The electrical power substitution capability makes the radiometer absolute and traceable to the international system (SI) of units. The new bolometer is currently under construction and will replace NIST's 50 year old detector standard for free-space CW laser power measurements. We also study the possibility of reducing background temperature sensitivity by optimizing the spectral selectivity of the VACNT forest with a photonic crystal structure.
The long-term balance between Earth’s absorption of solar energy and emission of radiation to space is a fundamental climate measurement. Total solar irradiance (TSI) has been measured from space, uninterrupted, for the past 40 years via a series of instruments. The Compact Total Irradiance Monitor (CTIM) is a CubeSat instrument that will demonstrate next-generation technology for monitoring total solar irradiance. It includes novel silicon-substrate room temperature vertically aligned carbon nanotube (VACNT) bolometers. The CTIM, an eight-channel 6U CubeSat instrument, is being built for a target launch date in late 2020. The basic design is similar to the SORCE, TCTE and TSIS Total Irradiance Monitors (TIM). Like TSIS TIM, it will measure the total irradiance of the Sun with an uncertainty of 0.0097% and a stability of <0.001%/year. The underlying technology, including the silicon substrate VACNT bolometers, has been demonstrated at the prototype-level. During 2019 we will build and test an engineering model of the detector subsystem. Following the testing of the engineering detector subsystem, we will build a flight detector unit and integrate it with a 6U CubeSat bus during late 2019 and 2020, in preparation for an on-orbit demonstration in 2021.
Accurate, long-term solar spectral irradiance (SSI) measurements are vital for interpreting how solar variability impacts Earth’s climate and for validating climate model sensitivities to spectrally varying solar forcing. The Compact Spectral Irradiance Monitor (CSIM) 6U CubeSat successfully launched on Dec. 3rd, 2018 as part of the SpaceX SSO-A: SmallSat Express Mission ultimately achieving a sun-synchronous 575 km orbit. CSIM brings new, emerging technology advancements to maturation by demonstrating the unique capabilities of a complete SSI mission with inherent low mass and compact design. The instrument is a compact, two-channel prism spectral radiometer incorporating Si, InGaAs, and extended InGaAs focal plane photodiodes to record the solar spectrum daily across a continuous wavelength region spanning 200 – 2800 nm (>97% of the total solar irradiance). A new, novel electrical substitution radiometer (ESR) using vertically aligned carbon-nanotube (VACNT) bolometers serves as an absolute detector for periodic on-orbit spectral calibration corrections. Pre-launch component level performance characterizations and final instrument end-to-end absolute calibration achieved low combined standard uncertainty (uc<0.5%) in irradiance. These calibrations were performed in the LASP Spectral Radiometer Facility (SRF), a comprehensive spectral irradiance calibration facility utilizing a tunable laser system tied to an SI-traceable cryogenic radiometer. On-orbit, optical degradation corrections to better than 0.05% / year uncertainty are achieved by comparing periodic, simultaneous solar measurements of the two CSIM channels operating with significantly different solar exposure duty cycles. Operational overlap of CSIM with existing SSI measurements validate concepts for maintaining critical long-term solar data records.
Currently at NIST, there is an effort to develop a black array of broadband absolute radiometers (BABAR) for far infrared sensing. The linear array of radiometer elements is based on uncooled vanadium oxide (VOx) microbolometer pixel technology but with the addition of two elements: vertically aligned carbon nanotubes (VACNTs) and an electrical substitution heater. Traditional microbolometer pixels use a thermistor film as an absorber, which is placed a quarter wavelength above a reflector, typically limiting absorption to a narrow band from 8 μm to 15 μm. To extend the sensing range of the imaging array into the far infrared (20 μm to 100 μm), we are replacing the cavity with a single absorber of VACNTs. In addition, each pixel has an electrical substitution heater which can be used to determine equivalent incident optical power when the device is non-illuminated. This device forms the basis of an absolute radiometer eliminating the need for an external reference (e.g. blackbody source).
The Multi-Slit Optimized Spectrometer (MOS) is a NASA funded Instrument Incubator Program (IIP) to advance an innovative dispersive spectrometer concept in support of the GEO-CAPE ocean science mission. As part of the instruments design and testing, we constructed a `behavioral model' of the instrument's optical engine which allows an end-to-end simulation from input radiances to nal product maps. Here we describe the model used for a rapid, but realistic, simulation of the MOS optical engine, and give illustrative examples of quantitatively tracking errors in the imaging chain from input radiances to bounds on nal product errors.
The National Research Council’s recommended NASA Geostationary Coastal and Air Pollution Events (GEO-CAPE)
science mission’s purpose is to identify “human versus natural sources of aerosols and ozone precursors, track air
pollution transport, and study the dynamics of coastal ecosystems, river plumes and tidal fronts.” To achieve these goals
two imaging spectrometers are planned, one optimized for atmospheric science and the other for ocean science. The
NASA Earth Science Technology Office (ESTO) awarded the Multislit Optimized Spectrometer (MOS) Instrument
Incubator Program (IIP) to advance a unique dispersive spectrometer concept in support of the GEO-CAPE ocean
science mission. MOS is a spatial multiplexing imaging spectrometer that simultaneously generates hyperspectral data
cubes from multiple ground locations enabling a smaller sensor with faster revisit times compared to traditional
concepts. This paper outlines the science, motivation, requirements, goals, and status of the MOS program.
Analysis of data measured by the NASA Langley airborne High Spectral Resolution Lidar is presented focusing on
measurements over the ocean. The HSRL is a dual wavelength polarized system (1064 and 532 nm) with the inclusion of
a molecular backscatter channel at 532 nm. Data from aircraft flights over the Pamlico Sound out to the Atlantic Ocean,
over the Caribbean west of Barbados, and off the coast of Barrow, Alaska are evaluated. Analysis of the data
demonstrates that the molecular channel detects the presence of water due to its ability to differentiate the Brillouin-
Mandelshtam spectrum, i.e. the scattering spectrum of water, from the Rayleigh/Mie spectrum. The characteristics of the
lidar measurements over water, land, ice, and mixed ice/water surfaces are examined. Correlations of the molecular
channel lidar signals with bathymetry (ocean depth) and extraction of attenuation from the HSRL lidar measurements are
presented and contrasted with ocean color data.
Meteorological sounding data provided by atmospheric imaging sounders have applications in weather forecasting,
atmospheric chemistry, and climate monitoring. Realistic scenes for these instruments vary in both spatial and spectral
content and such variations can impact the radiometric performance of these instruments. As sounders are developed to
provide climate records with demanding long-term radiometric accuracy requirements, it becomes increasingly
important to understand the effect of scene variations on the performance of these instruments. We have examined the
noise performance and radiometric accuracy of two geostationary sounder architectures in cloudy scenes: a Fourier
transform spectrometer (FTS) and a dispersive spectrometer. Factors such as stray light, ghosting, scattering, and line-ofsight
jitter in the presence of scene inhomogeneities are considered. For each sounder architecture, quantitative estimates
of the radiometric errors associated with sounding in cloudy scenes are made. We find that in a dispersive system the
dominant error in a cloudy scene originates from ghosting within the instrument, while in an FTS the dominant error
originates from scene modulation created by line-of-sight jitter in a partially cloudy scene coupling into signal
modulation over the scale of the changing optical path length of the interferometer. In this paper we describe the
assumptions made and the modeling performed. We also describe how each factor influences the radiometric
performance for that architecture.
Validated models describing on-orbit performance of Earth sensing instruments provide understanding of the calibration
of the instrument and insight that can be used to guide design choices for future missions. The success of the Cloud
Aerosol Lidar with Orthogonal Polarization (CALIOP) launched as part of the CALIPSO instrument suite provides an
opportunity to develop validated radiometric and integrated models of the instrument. We present validation of these
models with on-orbit data and describe how these models can be used to help define instrument requirements for future
active sensing missions that hope to capture both atmospheric and oceanographic properties. While designed for
atmospheric returns, CALIOP data includes backscatter from land, ice, and ocean surface and from beneath the ocean
surface. A radiometric model describing atmospheric returns that has been validated against CALIOP performance is
extended to include ocean subsurface returns. The model output is compared with CALIOP, aircraft lidar measurements,
and space-based ocean color measurements. This provides an opportunity to explore the value of space-based lidar
measurements to ocean measurements and to identify the impact of laser and detector design choices on the returned
lidar signal from the ocean as part of an ongoing effort to investigate oceanographic lidars.
Optical Autocovariance Wind Lidar (OAWL) is a new direct-detection interferometric Doppler lidar approach that
inherently enables simultaneous acquisition of multiple-wavelength High Spectral Resolution Lidar calibrated aerosol
profiles (OA-HSRL). Unlike other coherent and direct detection Doppler systems, the receiver is self referencing; no
specific optical frequency lock is required between the receiver and transmitter. This property facilitates frequency-agile
modalities such as DIAL. Because UV laser wavelengths are accommodated, a single transmitter can simultaneously
support winds, Raman, fluorescence, DIAL, and HSRL receiver channels, each sampling identical spatial and temporal
volumes. LOS species flux measurements are acquired without the usual spatial and temporal sampling errors (or cost,
volume, mass, power, and logistical issues) incurred by separate lidar systems, or lidars in combination with other
remote or in-situ sensors. A proof of concept (POC) OAWL system has been built and demonstrated at Ball, and OAHSRL
POC is in progress. A robust multi-wavelength, field-widened OAWL/OA-HSRL system is under development
with planned airborne demonstration from a WB-57 in late 2010. Detailed radiometric and dynamic models have been
developed to predict performance in both airborne and space borne scenarios. OA theory, development, demonstration
status, advantages, limitations, space and airborne performance, and combined measurement synergies are discussed.
LIDAR systems are becoming an important tool in many areas of remote data collection. Recently, BATC has applied their integrated modeling toolset, EOSyM (End-to-end Optical System Model), to development of a LIDAR system model. With the recent successful launch and deployment of the Calipso remote sensing instrument, an additional opportunity was present to develop a partially validated model from combined test data and measureables from the flight. The concept was to validate the CALIPSO system model and then use this tool to facilitate the system engineering process for future space-based designs. The system model includes the important physics of a laser, the CALIPSO optical prescription for the transmitter and receiver, thermoelastic disturbances, a simple atmospheric model, detection and signal processing of the data. This paper describes the model development process using EOSyM, some initial results with comparison to flight data and proposed future developments to expand it's use for future missions.
A standard grating-tuned extended-cavity diode laser is used for injection seeding of a tapered semiconductor laser/amplifier. With sufficient injection power the output of the amplifier takes on the spectral characteristics of the master laser. We have constructed master-oscillator power-amplifier systems that operator near 657 nm, 675 nm, 795 nm, and 850 nm. Although the characteristics vary from system to system, we have demonstrated output powers of greater than 700 mW in a single spatial mode, linewidths less than 1 kHz, coarse tuning greater than 20 nm, and continuous single-frequency scanning greater than 150 GHz. We discuss the spectroscopic applications of these high power, highly coherent, tunable diode lasers as applied to Ca, Hg+, I2, and two-photon transitions in Cs.
We have studied the user of vapor-cell magneto-optical traps for the collection and investigation of trace elements of radioactive isotopes. The fundamental processes governing efficient collection of neutral isotopes in a trap have been identified and integrated into a model that accurately describes the collection process. The model has been verified experimentally; a 6% capture efficiency has been demonstrated for stable Cs isotopes and we predict a simple change in trapping cell geometry will allow a 50% capture efficiency. This paper discussed the issues involved in efficient capture, such as the trapping laser properties and wall-coatings. It describes a new cell design for efficient capture and discusses current work towards trapping small numbers of 221Fr (T1/2 equals 4.8 minutes) atoms.
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