The time-resolved (TR) FIR photoconductivity of exceptionally high mobility n-GaAs (µ =250,000 cm2V-1s-1) samples hasbeen measured at 1.8K and in magnetic fields up to 8T using short (5ns) FIR pulses. The photoconductive decay time- constant (r) is determined at zero magnetic field and at several non-zero fields with FIR laser energies resonant with the 1s- 2p+ impurity transition. Comparisons are made with previous measurements on MQWs and a simple Golden Rule theory.
Terahertz (THz) spectroscopy of a biomolecule with spatial resolution below the diffraction limit of the radiation has
been achieved by use of an all-optical, contactless transient mirror technique. A resolution of around 50 &mgr;m is
determined by the use of a test sample of gold strip lines deposited on GaAs, and the differential THz time-domain
spectroscopy (THz-TDS) response of biotin has been measured in both the presence and absence of the transient mirror
at room temperature. These preliminary results demonstrate the potential for use of the technique for the chemical
identification and characterisation of biomolecules in small volumes with the ultimate goal being microscopic imaging of
live cells. The technique may find applications in quality control for semiconductor processing, and in identifying
material imperfections, i.e. small cracks in non-destructive testing. We discuss the limitations of the transient mirror
technique along with several advantages over other related techniques.
This paper reports on the development of micromachined pillar arrays for the filtering of terahertz radiation. These pillar
arrays are fabricated using ultraviolet based processing of thick SU8. This micromachining technique enables the array
patterns, dimensions, and consequently the filter characteristics, to be readily defined. In particular, we demonstrate that
by combining individual filter arrays with either different periods or pillar diameters we can isolate individual pass bands
in the 1 to 2 THz region.
We report on the development of a surface micromachined process for the fabrication of coaxial apertures surrounded by periodic grooves. The process uses a combination of copper electroforming and the negative epoxy based resist, SU8, as a thin flexible substrate. The device dimensions are suitable for the implementation of filters at THz frequencies, and measurements show a pass band centred around 1.5 THz. These devices could form the basis of the next generation of THz biosensors.
We report on the studies of kinetics of broad-band generation via optical rectification into terahertz domain using a sample of LiNbO3 partially filling a hollow metallic waveguide to increase the coherence length, enabling the observation of transition between phase-mismatched and phase-matched mechanisms of terahertz frequency generation.
We present a review on terahertz diagnostics in dentistry. Time domain and spectral domain imaging studies are compared. Imaging built on mapping time-domain dependencies delivers the information on mechanisms of light transport in tissue: ballistic, quasi-ballistic and diffusive photon transfer. Imaging utilizing transform in
frequency-domain provides a wealth of data on specific characterization of object: spectral and chemical content, tissue structure and composition and various kind of tissue abnormalities.
At the present time the interaction of Terahertz (THz) radiation with random structures is not well understood. Scattering effects are particularly relevant in this spectral regime, where the wavelength, and the size and separation of scattering centres are often commensurable. This phenomenon can both be used to advantage in imaging and sensing, but conversely can have adverse effects on the interpretation of a "fingerprint" spectrum. A new mathematical method, the Phase Distribution Model, is reported here for the calculation of attenuation and scattering of THz radiation in random materials. This uses a Phase Distribution Function to describe the effect of the non-absorbing scatterers within the media. Experimental measurements undertaken using previously published results, data obtained from specially constructed phantoms and from everyday textiles have been compared with the theory. These experimental results encompass both cylindrical and spherical scattering situations. The model has also been compared with exact calculations using the Pendry code.
A new mathematical method, the Phase Distribution Model, is devised for the calculation of attenuation and scattering of THz radiation in random materials. The accuracy of the approximation is tested by comparison with exact calculations and with experimental measurements on textiles and specially constructed phantoms.
Imaging and sensing systems for operation in both the millimetre wave and terahertz regions of the spectrum are reviewed. Advances in components are outlined, for both types of system, and these include: electronic, optical and vacuum-tube approaches. System and device challenges are summarised, and promising growth directions are discussed.
A pulsed terahertz imaging system has been developed for potential use in vivo. Few data are available regarding the optical properties of human tissue at terahertz frequencies. This work demonstrates
transmission measurements through human ex vivo tissue sections, and determines broadband refractive indices, and broadband and frequency dependent absorption coefficients. The data presented here are the first systematic measurements of this type. Significant differences were found between a numbers of human tissue types.
Terahertz frequency spectroscopic imaging studies of teeth are reported. The aim is to establish the characteristic properties of enamel and dentine at these high frequencies. Changes to the THz characteristics as a result of various types of tooth abnormalities are reported showing the potential of this technique for dental diagnosis
Terahertz (THz) radiation is being studied as an investigative tool for skin conditions. Two approaches for describing the propagation of THz radiation through skin are presented and verified using a layered water-based phantom. The skin was assumed to comprise a series of layers of tissue with differing, frequency dependent, properties; the major interaction was assumed to be between THz radiation and water. Based on these assumptions a thin film matrix model and a Monte Carlo model were developed to simulate this situation. In order to test these models, a simple three layer in-vitro phantom was used. This consisted of two 2 mm layers of TPX, encasing a 180 micrometer layer of a water/propanol-1 mixture. Spectroscopic measurements were made in a pulsed THz system for cells with thirteen different water/propanol-1 concentrations. Comparisons between the results from both models and experimental spectra show good correlation, in each case the model was able to simulate the overall trend of the spectra and more detailed features. This suggests that the models may be adapted to investigate THz irradiation of skin. Modeling modifications would include using layer dimensions that were comparable to the constituent layers of skin and using additional layers to describe the organ more thoroughly.
The first demonstrations of terahertz imaging in biomedicine were made several years ago, but few data are available on the optical properties of human tissue at terahertz frequencies. A catalogue of these properties has been established to estimate variability and determine the practicality of proposed medical applications in terms of penetration depth, image contrast and reflection at boundaries. A pulsed terahertz imaging system with a useful bandwidth 0.5-2.5 THz was used. Local ethical committee approval was obtained. Transmission measurements were made through tissue slices of thickness 0.08 to 1 mm, including tooth enamel and dentine, cortical bone, skin, adipose tissue and striated muscle. The mean and standard deviation for refractive index and linear attenuation coefficient, both broadband and as a function of frequency, were calculated. The measurements were used in simple models of the transmission, reflection and propagation of terahertz radiation in potential medical applications. Refractive indices ranged from 1.5 ± 0.5 for adipose tissue to 3.06 ± 0.09 for tooth enamel. Significant differences (P < 0.05) were found between the broadband refractive indices of a number of tissues. Terahertz radiation is strongly absorbed in tissue so reflection imaging, which has lower penetration requirements than transmission, shows promise for dental or dermatological applications.
Terahertz imaging is an emerging modality, with potential for medical applications, using broadband sub-picosecond electromagnetic pulses in the range of frequencies between 100 GHz and 100 terahertz (THz). Images can be formed using parameters derived from the time domain, or at the range of frequencies in the Fourier domain. The choice of frequency at which to image may be an important factor for clinical applications. Image quality as a function of frequency was assessed for a terahertz pulsed imaging system by means of; (i) image noise measurements on a specially designed step wedge, and (ii) modulation transfer functions (MTF) derived from a range of spatial frequency square wave patterns. It was found that frequencies with larger signal magnitude gave lower image noise, measured using relative standard deviation (standard deviation divided by mean) for uniform regions of interest of the step wedge image. MTF results were as expected, with higher THz frequency signals demonstrating a consistently higher MTF and higher spatial frequency limiting resolution than the lower THz frequencies. There is a trade-off between image noise and spatial resolution with image frequency. Higher frequencies exhibit better spatial resolution than lower frequencies, however the decrease in signal power results in a degradation of the image.
Terahertz (THz) radiation has a frequency of the order of 101212 Hz. This lies between the infrared and microwave regions of the electromagnetic spectrum; a section labeled the 'THz gap'. Infrared and microwave radiation is used in the medical field; research is underway for an application for THz radiation. At present no formal safety analysis of a THz pulsed imaging (TPI) system has been performed. This will be necessary for future in vivo studies. The radiation is delivered in a train of femtosecond pulses. International guidelines on exposure to non-ionizing radiation, and supporting literature, were reviewed to determine the Maximum Permissible Exposure (MPE) for radiation of this range of wavelengths, both for a single pulse and continuous wave exposure. Two methods of deriving the MPE were identified. Current guidelines for infrared and microwave regions of the electromagnetic spectrum incorporate the THz region. Using conservative parameter estimation an MPE per pulse, over the area of the beam, of 94 W was calculated. At present THz pulsed imaging systems produce pulses of power approximately 1 mW; this lies within the limit calculated using the published guidelines. There are, however, areas requiring further investigation before the technique becomes routine in clinical practice.
This paper discusses the need for micromachined components in very high frequency (terahertz) electronic circuits. It is shown that, with the use of micromachining, conventional rectangular rectangular technology can be scaled down to the dimensions required for these high frequency circuits. Furthermore, the fabrication techniques are capable of producing the high quality surface necessary for low loss components. Fabrication processes are presented together with the results of electrical characterisation.
We analyze the precision of a quasi-optical null-balance bridge reflectometer in measuring waveguide characteristic impedance and attenuation using a one-port de-embedding after taking into account errors due to imperfect coupling of two fundamental Gaussian beam. In order to determine the desired precision, we present in-waveguide measurements of characteristic impedance and attenuation for a WR-8 adjustable precision short in the 75-110 GHz frequency range using a Hewlett-Packard HP 8510 vector network analyzer.
In this communication, we report on the design and the fabrication of quantum well barrier varactor structures with state of the art results in terms of capacitance ratio over a narrow voltage range. Basically, the fact to consider is a barrier cladded by two quantum wells with respect to a single barrier heterostructure. It has several consequences for the non linear character of the device. The capacitance mechanism is governed at low voltage by the electron population rates off the quantum well rather than the conventional depletion mode process. A true band gap capacitance engineering is here demonstrated with thee kinds of structures either in the InP material system with a InGaAs/InAs/AlAs heterostructure or in the GaAs material system with GaAs/InGaAs/AlAs pseudomorphic epilayers and lattice matched AlGaAs/GaAs/AlAs heterojunctions. Self- consistent simulations, based on the solution of Poisson and Schroedinger coupled equations system, were performed in order to calculate the electron wave function and the conduction band bending. High capacitance ratios can be predicted depending on material parameters and structure geometry. Test samples were then fabricated and rf tested. The devices very high capacitance ratios is excess of 5 to 1 over a 1 Volt range.
An imaging system has been developed based on pulses of Terahertz (THz) radiation generated and detected using all- optical effects accessed by irradiating semiconductors with ultrafast pulses of visible laser light. This technique, commonly referred to as T-Ray Imaging or THz Pulse Imaging (TPI), holds enormous promise for certain aspects of medical imaging. We have conducted an initial survey of possible medical applications of TPI and demonstrated that TPI images show good contrast between different animal tissue types. Moreover, the diagnostic power of TPI has been elicidated by the spectra available at each pixel in the image, which are markedly different for the different tissue types. This suggests that the spectral information inherent in TPI might be used to identify the type of soft and hard tissue at each pixel in an image and provide other diagnostic information not afforded by conventional imagin techniques. Preliminary TPI studies of pork skin show that 3D tomographic imaging of the skin surface and thickness is possible, and data from experiments on models of the human dermis are presented which demonstrate that different constituents of skin have different refractive indices. Lastly, we present the first THz image of human tissue, namely an extracted tooth. The time of flight of THz pulses through the tooth allows the thickness of the enamel to be determined, and is used to create an image showing the enamel and dentine regions. Absorption of THz pulses in the tooth allows the pulp cavity region to be identified. Initial evidence strongly suggests that TPI my be used to provide valuable diagnostic information pertaining to the enamel, dentine, and the pump cavity.
Experimental results together with computer simulations, provide evidence to support the premise that quantum barrier devices can indeed yield sufficient improvements over conventional Schottky diodes, as to warrant their further study, especially for low-power millimeter and sub-millimeter wave receivers and where local oscillator power is at a premium.
The fabrication of air-filled rectangular metal-pipe waveguide using a lithographically-based technique has recently been reported. This type of waveguide, together with other passive components such as antennas, couplers, mixers and filters may offer a realistic route to terahertz frequency integrated circuits in view of the compatibility of the fabrication technique with those of standard semiconductor processing. In this contribution, we report the fabrication of a range of waveguide components for operation at frequencies of up to 300 GHz. These measurements represent the highest frequency characterization study so far reported for a micromachined passive structure of this type and provide proof of TE10 propagation with the expected cut-off frequency. Numerous measurements have been taken using G-band (WR-F) guide which show an attenuation loss of approximately 0.6 dB per guide wavelength at 200 GHz. This low value of attneuation shows that these micromachined waveguide are viable components for use in integrated circuits at terahertz frequencies. The insertion loss repeatability (due to mismatch effects at the ports of the waveguides) has been measured and has been shown to be better than plus or minus 0.5 dB. Preliminary results are presented for J-band (WR-3) waveguide which clearly shows the cut off frequency.
A new technique is reported for micro-machining millimeter and submillimeter-wave rectangular waveguide components using an advanced thick film UV photoresist known as EPONTM SU-8. The recent introduction of this resist has been of great interest to the millimeter-wave and terahertz micro-machining communities, as it is capable of producing features up to 1 mm in height with very high aspect ratios in only a single UV exposure. It therefore represents a possible low-cost alternative to the LIGA process. S-parameter measurements on the new rectangular waveguides show that they achieve lower loss than those produced using other on-chip fabrication techniques, they have highly accurate dimensions, are physically robust, and cheap and easy to manufacture.
We have studied the influence of silicon doping on the electric-field-induced Stark shifts of the subband states for AlGaAs/GaAs/AlGaAs multiple quantum well structures. The investigations were performed applying electroreflectance (ER), photoreflectance (PR), and for comparison photoluminescence (PL) spectroscopy. The analysis of the PR spectra yields the transition energies at approximately zero electric field, which are in good agreement with PL peaks. The shift of the Er ground state heavy hole transition with respect t the PR data and accompanying self-consistent calculations allow the determination of the field strength F at each gate voltage with high accuracy. On this bases, the other transitions can be identified by their expected shift. It will be shown that all transitions involving the first heavy hole subband show a strong increase of their signals with increasing field strength. The plot of F2 versus gate voltage for both samples fits a straight line, slope of which provides the corresponding concentrations of the ionized donors.
We report on the influence of a 2-D electron gas (2-D EG) on the electroreflectance (ER) spectra of an AlGaAs/GaAs/AlGaAs single quantum well. The ER and, for comparison, photoluminescence (PL) measurements were performed as a function of temperature and carrier density in a gated 2-D EG. For negative gate voltages the observed ER signals are due to the quantum confined Stark effect (QCSE). For forward biases and at a temperature of 10 K, the broadening of the PL line and the increase of the Stokes shift between the corresponding ER and PL transitions give clear evidence for the population of the first electron subband. Moreover, with the formation of the 2-D EG we found a strong enhancement of the magnitude as well as two additional phase inversions for the ER transitions between the ground heavy and light hole states and the first electron subband. These effects were seen to decrease with increasing temperature. The results are explained in terms of transformation of the excitonic absorption mechanism from a QCSE-related mechanism to one determined by the `Mahan exciton.'
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