To improve data security and authentication, we designed and fabricated a cryptographic key generator based on a photonic integrated circuit that converts a digital input key into a digital output key by means of a physical unclonable function (PUF). The PUF is realized by an imperfect multi-mode interferometer controlled by low-power micro-electromechanical system (MEMS) phase shifters. An analytical model was derived and used to prove the randomness of the generated digital keys, and the model was validated by measurements of a first proof-of-concept demonstrator. The demonstrator was fabricated using a silicon nitride photonic integrated circuit (PIC) platform and our recently developed MEMS-on-PIC technology.
To improve data security and authentication, we designed and fabricated a cryptographic key generator based on a photonic integrated circuit that converts a digital input key into a digital output key by means of a physical unclonable function. The physical unclonable function is realised by an imperfect multi-mode interferometer controlled by low-voltage MEMS phase shifters with very low power dissipation. The MEMS phase shifters are fabricated using our recently developed MEMS-on-PIC technology. A cross-platform approach applicable to all common material platforms used in integrated photonics, enabled by a combination of a protective interfacial layer and a sacrificial layer technology.
The combination of photonic integrated circuits with MEMS allows to change the effective refractive index with unique ultra-low power dissipation characteristics. This enables high integration density applications like photonic quantum computing under cryogenic conditions. The here introduced fabrication technology can universally be applied to all common material platforms, such as silicon, silicon nitride or lithium niobate. The technological flexibility allows to use the IPMS PIC-technology (silicon nitride based) or cooperate very well cross-platforms with partners. The fabrication concept is successfully demonstrated and enables low-voltage devices with very low power consumption and modulation speeds up to megahertz.
Miniaturized vectorial beam steering mirrors are required in numerous applications like (i) LIDAR, (ii) diagnostic imaging or (iii) miniaturized therapeutic laser systems. In this article we present a new type of electrostatically driven vectorial (2D quasi-static) MEMS scanning mirror with monolithic integrated position sensors. The vectorial MEMS scanner was specially optimized for the requirements of a compact therapeutic photocoagulation laser system for the treatment of retinal eye diseases. This requires a highly miniaturized MEMS scanning system for fast and precise vectorial beam positioning of the treatment laser with a positioning time of ≤ 5 ms. The quasi-static 2D drive of the presented 2D MEMS scanning mirror is based on electrostatic vertical comb actuators in combination with a noncardanic suspension of the 2.2 mm circular mirror plate. To measure and control the actual beam position piezoresistive position sensors are monolithically integrated into the MEMS design. The MEMS scanner was designed for a quasistatic (mechanical) 2D tilt angle of ± 2 ° for both scan axes each in two frequency variants with 714 Hz and 1 kHz at 70 V and 130 V drive voltage, respectively. For high laser powers of > 1.5 W (average power) at 519 nm wavelength, highly reflective optical coatings based on a symmetric HRC design of enhanced (hybrid) Al with R ≥ 98 % are used.
Miniaturized vectorial beam steering mirrors are required in numerous applications like (i) LIDAR, (ii) diagnostic imaging or (iii) miniaturized therapeutic laser systems. To increase simultaneously static tilt angle (≥ ±5°) and mirror aperture (≥ 3mm) electro-dynamic driven MEMS vector scanners, actuated by moving magnet drives, were developed. Here, Fraunhofer IPMS uses a hybrid MEMS concept combining its experience in the fabrication of monolithic silicon 2D MEMS scanning mirrors with existing know-how in MEMS micro-assembly technologies. Two designs of electro-magnetic driven vectorial 2D MEMS scanners are presented, (i) a non-gimbaled 2D vector scanner with 8 mm mirror aperture and ≥ ±2° quasi-static tilt angle and (ii) a 2D vector scanner with gimble suspended moving magnet drive. The gimbaled electro-magnetic MEMS scanner has a 5 mm large aperture and enables large quasi-static tilt angles of ±13° on both scan axis. Eigenfrequencies are 142 Hz (X) and 124 Hz (Y) allowing non-resonant vectorial scanning with speeds up to 100…400°/s. A step response time < 10 ms is achieved in closed loop control for both axes. This hybrid electro-magnetic MEMS approach significantly expands the parameter space of the previous monolithic electro-static scanners.
A translatory MOEMS actuator is presented, which enables a precise out-of-plane translatory oscillation of a 5mm mirror with 700 μm large stroke at 267Hz, when driven at 4V in parametric resonance. Due to significant gas damping operation in vacuum is needed. The minimum requirements on vacuum pressure (pmax ≥ 3.21 Pa, Q ≥ 1177) were determined experimentally. Therefore, the MOEMS are permanently encapsulated by means of a wafer-level-vacuum package. The hermetic sealing of MEMS WLVP (stack of 4 wafer 6”) was realized by glass-frit bonding (i) to be compatible to MEMS process AME75 and (ii) to avoid any (vertical) TWI. The ductile glass frit bond layer allows hermetic sealing also on non-ideal wafer topologies with height differences of several 100 nm. But high process temperatures of 435°C are required. Despite the high process temperatures (430°C needed for glass frit bonding) a sufficient static mirror planarity of ≤ λ/10 was achieved. The paper will discuss details of VWLP development and MEMS system integration. The longterm stability of 0.1 Pa inner vacuum pressure was successfully tested to be < 10a using a Ne fine leakage test. For system integration into a miniaturized FT-NIR spectrometer selected MEMS with minimal tilt were used. The NIR-FTS achieved a spectral resolution of 8.3 cm-1 and SNR ≤ 8000 (with co-adding of 1000 spectra). The new translatory MEMS are very promising for compact FTS. The versatility and ruggedness of a MOEMS-FTS makes it ideal for process control in harsh environments (e.g. surveillance of fast chemical reactions).
High resolution spectroscopy via tunable lasers usually requires CW operation with mode-hop-free wavelength tuning. To suppress mode hopping by laser resonator-length tuning, Fraunhofer IPMS developed a novel electrostatic non-resonant translational micromirror. The combination of this device with a MOEMS grating within an external-cavity MIR QCL results in a miniaturized module that meets the requirements of high-resolution spectroscopy. The translational micromirror features a 5-mm aperture, an arbitrary actuator stroke of up to 120 µm and multiple independent electrostatic actuators to compensate for tip or tilt up to 350 µrad. We compare characterization and FEA simulation data, demonstrating the unique characteristics and the operational capability for a variety of applications.
We present the design and system integration of a hybrid MEMS scanning mirror (MSM) array developed for real-time three-dimensional imaging with a panoramic optical field of view (FOV) of 360 deg × 60 deg (horizontal × vertical). The pulsed time-of-flight light detection and ranging (LiDAR) system targets a distance measurement range of 100 m with a video-like frame rate of 10 Hz. The fast vertical scan axis is realized by a synchronous scanning MSM array with large receiver aperture. It increases the scanning rate to 3200 Hz, which is four times faster in comparison with state-of-the-art fast macroscopic polygon scanning systems used in current LiDAR systems. A hybrid assembly of frequency selected scanner elements was chosen instead of a monolithic MEMS array to guaranty high yield of MEMS fabrication and a synchronous operation of all resonant MEMS elements at 1600 Hz with large FOV of 60 deg. The hybrid MSM array consists of a separate emitting mirror for laser scanning of the target and 22 reception elements resulting in a large reception aperture of Deff = 23 mm. All MSM are driven in parametric resonance to enable a fully synchronized operation of all individual MEMS scanner elements. Therefore, piezoresistive position sensors are integrated inside the MEMS chip, used for position feedback of the driving control. We focus on the MEMS system integration including the microassembly of multiple MEMS scanning elements using micromechanical self-alignment. We present technical details to meet the narrow tolerance budgets for (i) microassembly and (ii) synchronous driving of multiple MEMS scanner elements.
Novel research focuses on the use of micro scanning mirrors in mobile applications like automotive LiDAR sensors, head-mounted displays or portable micro beamer. Even under normal conditions, micro scanners are exposed to considerable environmental influences. Particularly disturbances such as shock, vibration and temperature fluctuations are relevant for miniaturized scanning systems. In this publication we show the critical environmental parameters for quasi-static micro mirrors with a staggered vertical comb drive intended for high-precision trajectory tracking control. Scanners are controlled based on a piezo-resistive position sensor feedback. Focus will be experimental shock and vibration analysis by exposure to sinusoidal and wide-band random vibration excitation as typical for automotive industry specifications. These are the most demanding requirements compared with other application fields of MEMS mirrors. The on-chip piezo-resistive sensor enables evaluation of the vibration load on the micro scanner, without any optical measurement setup. MEMS mirrors are mounted on a shaker system for characterization and are attached to a vehicle body to evaluate a real application scenario. Furthermore the performance in open-loop and closed-loop control mode is analyzed and shows very good applicability of micro scanners in an automotive environment.
External cavity diode lasers (ECDLs) are a well-established laboratory tool due to their excellent emission properties. However, if the ECDLs are used outside the laboratory, they have limitations in terms of tuning speed and robustness. For overcoming these limitations, we developed a new micro-electro-mechanical system (MEMS) based ECDL cavity concept. The 1D MEMS actuator defines the angle of incidence at the diffraction grating as well as the cavity length of the ECDL. Due to the high resonance frequency of the MEMS actuator in the kHz range, the switching speed of the ECDL emission wavelength is drastically reduced. Furthermore, the MEMS actuator minimizes the sensitivity to external disturbance which opens a path to handheld wide mode-hop free tunable ECDLs in the near future. Therefore we have also optimized our curved waveguide concept based on GaSb for the ECDL design, whereby a wavelength range from NIR to the MIR range can be better covered. These features qualify the new developed MEMS tunable ECDL for the high demands of the high resolution multi-species molecular spectroscopy. Application examples of the MEMS based ECDL and the curved gain chips will be provided.
The combination of broadly tunable quantum cascade laser chips in an external cavity (EC-QCL) with a micro- electromechanical system (MEMS) scanner with integrated diffraction grating as wavelength-selective element allows for the development of extremely compact and robust spectroscopy systems. Resonant MOEMS grating scanners enable spectral tuning rates of hundreds of wavenumbers per millisecond and consequently broad-band spectroscopy with millisecond temporal resolution. Also non-resonant (quasi-static) MOEMS grating scanners are possible, providing scan rates of tens of Hz as well as static setting of arbitrary wavelengths, as common for mechanically driven EC lasers, while keeping the small MOEMS footprint, ruggedness, and low power consumption. Here, we give a progress report on the latest developments on MOEMS-based EC-QCLs made by Fraunhofer IAF and IPMS. We will highlight two of our latest developments: A non-resonant MOEMS EC-QCL version that allows arbitrary scan frequencies up to few ten Hertz, as well as static operation. Furthermore, we present the application of a resonantly driven cw-MOEMS-EC-QCL with cavity-length control to enable fast high-resolution spectroscopy over a spectral range of >100 cm-1, offering new possibilities for spectroscopy on complex gas mixtures.
Here we report our recent achievements towards a compact, portable, handheld device for contactless real-time detection and identification of explosives and hazardous substances via reflectance spectroscopy in the 7.5 μm – 10 μm spectral region. The mid-IR spectroscopic measurement principle relies on selective illumination of the target using broadly tunable external cavity quantum cascade lasers (EC-QCLs). A resonant micro-opto-electro-mechanical systems (MOEMS) grating enables fast wavelength tuning in the external cavity, allowing the full spectral scan to be completed in <1 ms. The diffusely backscattered light’s intensity dependence on illumination wavelength provides spectroscopic information to identify threat compounds via our spectral database, containing a large number of materials relevant in a security context. We present a handheld portable, albeit tethered, device capable of real-time identification of hazardous substances at a range of 1 m. We will outline future improvements to increase the system’s usability, such as integrated computing power, automated focusing to that allow use over a range of detection distances and spatial scanning for background subtraction.
A translatory MOEMS actuator with extraordinarily large stroke - especially developed for fast optical path-length modulation in miniaturized FT-spectrometers (FTS) designed for NIR spectral region (800 nm – 2500 nm) - is presented. A precise translational out-of-plane oscillation at 260 Hz with a stroke of up to 700 μm and minimized dynamic mirror deformation of 80 nm is realized by means of an optimized MEMS design. The MOEMS device is driven electro-statically near resonance and is manufactured in a CMOS-compatible SOI process. Due to the significant viscous gas damping, dominated by the drag resistance of the comparatively large mirror plate with 5mm diameter, the resonant MEMS device has to operate under reduced pressure. A mirror stroke of 700 μm at a driving voltage of 4V is achieved by hermetic encapsulation of the actuator at at a maximal pressure of 3.2 Pa. For FTS system integration the MOEMS actuator has been encapsulated in an optical vacuum wafer-level package (VWLP) to guarantee a long-term stable vacuum pressure of 0.1 Pa and lifetime t ≥ 10a.
An overview of advances in MOEMS devices and technologies for high quality imaging systems is provided. A particular focus is laid on recent technological further developments possibly opening gateways to unprecedented device and system functionality by e. g.: increase of pixel count towards higher parallel operation, decrease of the mirror pitch in large arrays towards applications like high-performance holography, novel technologies for higher operation bandwidth, increase of aperture size for scanning applications like LIDAR, integration of high reflection coatings for processing of multi Watt laser radiation for marking and engraving, and phased arrays for high speed laser beam steering.
The combination of spectral broadly tunable quantum cascade laser chips in an external cavity (EC-QCL) with a rapid scanning MOEMS grating as wavelength selective element has attracted a lot of attention in recent years. Spectral tuning ranges of more than 350 cm-1 in the mid-infrared fingerprint region combined with scan frequencies of up to 1 kHz for a complete wavelength scan have enabled several new sensing applications such as contactless real time identification of chemical substances via backscattering spectroscopy. Moreover, the technological approach of a MOEMS EC-QCL allows for a dense integration of the electro optical components resulting in a footprint size for the laser source comparable to that of a matchbox. This makes the MOEMS EC-QCL especially attractive for handheld sensing systems.
In this talk we present the recent advances on the MOEMS EC-QCL technology made at Fraunhofer IAF and IPMS within the European projects MIRPHAB, Aquarius and Chequers. A detailed analysis of spectral reproducibility of consecutive scans, amplitude noise, and spectral resolution in pulsed and cw operation of the laser source is shown and several showcase applications from online process control in chemical and pharmaceutical industry such as transmission measurements on liquids and gases are discussed.
Various scanning applications like LIDAR sensors, OCT systems and laser projectors require a repeated periodic linear scanning trajectory performed by a quasi-static micro mirror. Since most MOEMS systems have inherent nonlinearities like a progressive spring stiffness and the quadratic voltage-deflection-relation of electrostatic drives, a nonlinear control scheme as presented in our previous paper significantly reduces parasitic oscillations of the resonance frequency and enables a high resolution raster scan combining a quasi-static axis with a cardanic mounted resonant axis. In this paper we address a novel control scheme using a flatness-based feedback control enhanced by a plug-in repetitive controller for the linear scanning axis. We demonstrate the applicability of this feedback control for a quasi-static moving micro mirror with electrostatic staggered vertical comb drives using a microcontroller-based driver. On-chip piezoresistive sensors serve as position feedback. We compare different scan trajectories and repetition rates with respect to the linearity and repeatability showing the robustness of the proposed control regime. Furthermore we discuss the advantage of this method to reduce the individual chip characterization for ramping up mass production.
We report on mid-IR spectroscopic measurements performed with rapidly tunable external cavity quantum cascade lasers (EC-QCLs). Fast wavelength tuning in the external cavity is realized by a microoptoelectromechanical systems (MOEMS) grating oscillating at a resonance frequency of about 1 kHz with a deflection amplitude of up to 10 deg. The entire spectral range of the broadband QCL can therefore be covered in just 500 μs, paving the way for real-time spectroscopy in the mid-IR region. In addition to its use in spectroscopic measurements conducted in backscattering and transmission geometry, the MOEMS-based laser source is characterized regarding pulse intensity noise, wavelength reproducibility, and spectral resolution.
In this contribution, we report on real-time mid-IR spectroscopy enabled by rapidly tunable External Cavity Quantum Cascade Lasers (EC-QCLs). High speed spectral scanning in a Littrow-type resonator is realized by employing a resonantly driven micro-opto-electro-mechanical-systems (MOEMS) grating as wavelength selective element. Oscillating at a frequency of 1 kHz with mechanical amplitudes of up to 10°, the MOEMS grating is able to cover the whole spectral range provided even by broad-gain QCL chips in just 500 μs. In addition to the high spectral scanning frequency, the MOEMS approach also allows for a miniaturized and rugged design of the EC-QCL. An evaluation of this laser source with regard to spectral reproducibility of consecutive scans, pulse intensity noise, and spectral resolution will be given. Furthermore, we present spectroscopic measurements in backscattering as well as in transmission geometry, demonstrating the real-time capability in different scenarios.
In the recent past infrared laser backscattering spectroscopy using Quantum Cascade Lasers (QCL) emitting in the molecular fingerprint region between 7.5 μm and 10 μm proved a highly promising approach for stand-off detection of dangerous substances. In this work we present an active illumination hyperspectral image sensor, utilizing QCLs as spectral selective illumination sources. A high performance Mercury Cadmium Telluride (MCT) imager is used for collection of the diffusely backscattered light. Well known target detection algorithms like the Adaptive Matched Subspace Detector and the Adaptive Coherent Estimator are used to detect pixel vectors in the recorded hyperspectral image that contain traces of explosive substances like PETN, RDX or TNT. In addition we present an extension of the backscattering spectroscopy technique towards real-time detection using a MOEMS EC-QCL.
Two new technological process flows for the piezoresistive position detection of resonant and quasistatic micro scanning mirrors were developed to increase sensitivities by a factor of 3:6 compared to former sensors, improve signal to noise ratio of the sensor signal and to allow controlled feedback loop operation. The sensor types use differently doped and deposited silicon. One is based on single crystal silicon with a pn-junction to isolate the active sensor area from the device layer silicon, the other one is based on a deposited and structured polysilicon. The sensor characteristics are compared including light, temperature dependence and reliability results.
We present spectroscopic measurements performed with an EC-QCL combining a broadly tunable quantum cascade laser chip with a tuning range of more than 300 cm-1 and a resonantly driven MOEMS scanner with an integrated diffraction grating for wavelength selection in Littrow configuration. The grating geometry was optimized to provide high diffraction efficiency over the wide tuning range of the QCL, thus assuring high power density and high spectral resolution in the MIR range. The MOEMS scanner has a resonance frequency of 1 kHz, hence allowing for two full wavelength scans, one up and the other downwards, within 1 ms. The capability for real-time spectroscopic sensing based on MOEMS EC-QCLs is demonstrated by transmission measurements performed on polystyrene reference absorber sheets as well as on gaseous samples of carbon monoxide. For the latter one, a large portion of the characteristic CO absorption band containing several absorption lines in the range of 2070 cm-1 to 2280 cm-1 can be monitored in real-time.
Experimental results of a large scanning grating with a diameter of 5mm and 1 kHz scan frequency are discussed. An optical diffraction grating is fabricated on a mirror single crystal silicon plate to scan the first diffraction order in the MIR-wavelength range over a quantum cascade laser facet. Special emphasis is on the development of the grating technology module to integrate it with high accuracy and reproducibility into the IPMS AME75 process flow. The principle EC-QCL setup with the scanning grating is described and first measurement results concerning laser output power and tuning range are presented.
In this paper recent advances in broadband-tuneable mid-infrared (MIR) external-cavity quantum cascade lasers
(EC-QCL) technology are reported as well as their use in spectroscopic process analysis and imaging stand-off detection
of hazardous substances, such as explosive and related precursors. First results are presented on rapid scan EC-QCL,
employing a custom-made MOEMS scanning grating in Littrow-configuration as wavelength-selective optical feedback
element. This way, a scanning rate of 1 kHz was achieved, which corresponds to 2000 full wavelength scans per second.
Furthermore, exemplary case studies of EC-QCL based MIR spectroscopy will be presented. These include timeresolved
analysis of catalytic reactions in chemical process control, as well as imaging backscattering spectroscopy for
the detection of residues of explosives and related precursors in a relevant environment.
In situ process information in the chemical, pharmaceutical or food industry as well as emission monitoring, sensitive trace detection and biological sensing applications would increasingly rely on MIR-spectroscopic analysis in the 3 μm - 12 μm wavelength range. However, cost effective, portable, low power consuming and fast spectrometers with a wide tuning range are not available so far. To provide these MIR-spectrometer properties, the combination of quantum cascade lasers with a MOEMS scanning grating as wavelength selective element in the external cavity is addressed to provide a very compact and fast tunable laser source for spectroscopic analysis.
Fraunhofer IPMS developed a new type of small-sized scanning mirror for Laser projection systems in mobile
applications. The device consists of a single crystal mirror plate of 1 mm diameter in a gimbal mounting enabling a bi-resonant
oscillation of both axes at a resonance frequency of about 100 Hz and 27 kHz respectively. The mechanical
scan angle (MSA) achieved is ± 7° for the slow and ± 12° for the fast axis. The mirror angle position and phase can be
read out via two piezo-resistive sensors located at the torsion axes. In order to allow for a minimum device size of the
resonantly driven slow axis the sensor of the inner fast axis was connected by a new kind of thin silicon conductors.
Those are created by means of an etch stop in TMAH etch and kept as thin as possible in order to reduce their
contribution to the mechanical stiffness of the mirror-supporting structures. This new system enables to lead six (or even
more) independent electrical potentials onto the moving parts of the device, whereas the mechanical properties are
mainly determined by only 2 torsion axes. The devices were subsequently characterized and tested. Technology details,
simulation results, pictures of the device and the new conductor structures as well as measurement results are presented.
A Scan Head package including two 1D resonant electrostatic driven micro scanning mirrors with piezoresistive
position detection was developed. The scanning frequency of the slow and the fast axis is 100Hz and 29,05kHz,
allowing WVGA-resolution. Thereby the Scan Head design reduces vertical distortion strongly and can potentially
be assembled automatically. In addition FPGA based video processing electronic was developed to improve
the sorting of the picture information corresponding to the Lissajous figure with the objective of high picture
contrast and a homogeneous brightness.
We have been developing a piezoresistive position detection for scanning micro mirrors in order to combine high
position resolution with the capability of monolithic integration. In comparison to our formerly published results,
the sensor sensitivity was strongly enhanced by implanting a 1 μm thick p-doped layer of NA ≈ 1017 cm-3 into
the lowly p-doped SOI device layer of NA ≈ 1015 cm-3. This sensitivity was even further improved by at least
a factor of 3 by a novel sensor design, allowing to couple more mechanical stress into the sensor structure.
Position feedback of resonant scanning micromirrors plays a key role for various applications like portable laser
projection displays or scanning grating spectrometers. The SOI device layer without an additional surface implantation
is used for the piezoresistive sensor design. It assures the full compatibility to microscanner technology
and requires no additional technological efforts. The necessary asymmetry of the current field density is achieved
by the geometrical design of the sensor and its contacting. Integrated 2D position sensors with amplitude sensitivities
of 0.42mV/V° were fabricated. FEA simulation and measured data correlates well with variations of
≤ 20.4%.
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