The Alignment and Phasing System (APS) of the Thirty Meter Telescope (TMT) will use Shack-Hartmann-type measurements to determine the alignment of the telescope mirrors as well as the relative alignment and shapes of the segments of the primary mirror (M1). These measurements are required to be made with high accuracy in order for the telescope to produce diffraction-limited images. As TMT commissioning time will be limited, full performance must also be achieved as quickly as possible, and routine operations times need to be minimized. From the earliest stages of the design, the TMT APS team has therefore emphasized work that ensures that APS will work as well and as close to out of the box as possible and reduces the associated risks. APS is based on the Phasing Camera System (PCS) with more than 60 years of combined operation between the two telescopes of the W. M. Keck Observatory. In addition to the vast experience available from this heritage, there has been a great deal of effort on algorithm and software development, analytical studies and simulations, experiments, and prototyping. Here, we describe some of these efforts and explain why we are confident that this critical subsystem of TMT will achieve its goals.
The Keck telescope segments were manufactured by stressed mirror polishing of large circular pieces of Zerodur that were then cut into hexagons and finished by Ion Beam Figuring (IBF). It has long been believed that this process results in segments with little or no edge effects. As a result, this same general approach is planned for segment manufacturing for the Thirty Meter Telescope (TMT) and the European Extremely Large Telescope (E-ELT). However, recent measurements at the Keck telescope suggest that at least some of the Keck segments have significant aberrations within 60 mm of the edge. These aberrations impact the telescope phasing and the overall telescope image quality. We present interferometric measurements of multiple Keck segments, characterizing the surface errors near the edges over spatial periods from ~5 cm down to ~1 mm. We show that the largest phasing and image quality effects are due to plateaus of unremoved material, left behind after IBF as a result of obscuration by the IBF supports. Apart from these plateaus, the edge quality is relatively good, though not as good as in the segment interiors. Some residual phasing and image quality effects remain, and these are not currently understood.
The narrowband segment phasing algorithm that was originally developed at Keck was replaced many years ago by a broadband algorithm that, although slower and less accurate than the former, has proved to be much more robust. A thorough investigation into the lack of robustness of the narrowband algorithm has now shown that this results from systematic errors (∼ 20 nm on average) that are wavelength-dependent. We show that the seemingly continuous distribution of these chromatic errors in fact results from (at least) two independent causes. The largest and most problematic effects are due to “plateaus” of unremoved material that were covered by supports during the ion beam figuring of three of the segments, but other smaller chromatic effects are also shown to be present and these are not yet understood. If the purely chromatic effects can be eliminated, we show that the intrinsic accuracy of the narrowband algorithm is about 6 nm (surface).
Alignment and Phasing System (APS) is responsible for the optical alignment via starlight of the approximately 12,000 degrees of freedom of the primary, secondary and tertiary mirrors of Thirty Meter Telescope (TMT). APS is based on the successful Phasing Camera System (PCS) used to align the Keck Telescopes. Since the successful APS conceptual design in 2007, work has concentrated on risk mitigation, use case generation, and alignment algorithm development and improvement. Much of the risk mitigation effort has centered around development and testing of prototype APS software which will replace the current PCS software used at Keck. We present an updated APS design, example use cases and discuss, in detail, the risk mitigation efforts.
The narrowband phasing algorithm that was originally developed at Keck has largely been replaced by a broad- band algorithm that, although it is slower and less accurate than the former, has proved to be much more robust. A systematic investigation into the lack of robustness of the narrowband algorithm has shown that it results from systematic errors (of order 20 nm) that are wavelength-dependent. These errors are not well-understood at present, but they do not appear to arise from instrumental effects in the Keck phasing cameras, or from the segment coatings. This leaves high spatial frequency aberrations or scattering within 60 mm of the segment edges as the most likely origin of the effect.
We have developed an integrated optical model of the semi-static performance of the Thirty Meter Telescope. The model includes surface and rigid body errors of all telescope optics as well as a model of the Alignment and Phasing System Shack-Hartmann wavefront sensors and control algorithms. This integrated model allows for simulation of the correction of the telescope wavefront, including optical errors on the secondary and tertiary mirrors, using the primary mirror segment active degrees of freedom. This model provides the estimate of the predicted telescope performance for system engineering and error budget development. In this paper we present updated performance values for the TMT static optical errors in terms of Normalized Point Source Sensitivity and RMS wavefront error after Adaptive Optics correction. As an example of a system level trade, we present the results from an analysis optimizing the number of Shack-Hartmann lenslets per segment. We trade the number of lenslet rings over each primary mirror segment against the telescope performance metrics of PSSN and RMS wavefront error.
We quantify the accuracy of the Keck telescope segment surface figure measurements made on sky by the Phasing Camera System (PCS), a Shack-Hartmann wavefront sensor that uses long integration times to average over the effects of atmospheric turbulence. These measurements are used to determine the settings for warping harnesses that significantly reduce the segment surface errors. When a series of six measurements is performed on the same segment in rapid succession, the Root Mean Square (RMS) segment surface, as reconstructed by 2nd through 4th order Zernike polynomials, is determined with an accuracy of 6.0 ‡ 3.2 nm (error on the mean). However, when we compare measurements on the same segment separated by several hours the inferred surface RMS accuracy is 9.0 ‡ 5.0 nm, or 50% larger. This suggests that there are systematic errors on the order of 7 nm that vary throughout the night. In this paper we investigate and quantify the potential causes of these systematic errors, which together with statistical errors, constitute a fundamental limit for the performance of segment warping harnesses. Such measurements are currently the baseline warping harness inputs for the Thirty Meter Telescope and the European Extremely Large Telescope.
A variety of algorithms utilized in the alignment of segmented telescopes were developed for and implemented
on the Keck telescopes in the 1990s. The algorithms associated with the Keck segmented primary mirrors are
very similar to those that will be used for the Thirty Meter Telescope (TMT). However, there are alignment
or related wavefront measurement tasks associated with the TMT secondary and tertiary mirrors for which the
corresponding Keck algorithms either did not exist or are not adequate for TMT. We discuss two particular
algorithms associated with the TMT secondary and tertiary mirrors.
In this paper we present the current status of control algorithm development for the Thirty Meter Telescope (TMT) Alignment
and Phasing System (APS).We discuss ways to address the main challenges inherent in the active control of extremely
large segmented telescopes: high complexity of the control problem, disentangling the aberrations on the primary, secondary
and tertiary mirrors, and the tight requirements for residual errors. We also present preliminary APS performance
estimates derived from simulations. In particular, our simulations show that the tomographic aberration disentanglement is
only marginally useful for TMT alignment.
The segments in the Keck telescopes are routinely phased using a Shack-Hartmann wavefront sensor with subapertures
that span adjacent segments. However, one potential limitation to the absolute accuracy of this
technique is that it relies on a lenslet array (or a single lens plus a prism array) to form the subimages. These
optics have the potential to introduce wavefront errors and stray reflections at the subaperture level that will bias
the phasing measurement. We present laboratory data to quantify this effect, using measured errors from Keck
and two other lenslet arrays. In addition, as part of the design of the Thirty Meter Telescope Alignment and
Phasing System we present a preliminary investigation of a lenslet-free approach that relies on Fresnel diffraction
to form the subimages at the CCD. Such a technique has several advantages, including the elimination of lenslet
aberrations.
The primary, secondary and tertiary mirrors of the Thirty Meter Telescope (TMT), taken together, have approximately
12,000 degrees of freedom in optical alignment. The Alignment and Phasing System (APS) will use
starlight and a variety of Shack-Hartmann based measurement techniques to position the segment pistons, tips,
and tilts, segment figures, secondary rigid body motion, secondary figure and the tertiary figure to correctly align
the TMT. We present a conceptual design of the APS including the requirements, alignment modes, predicted
performance, software architecture, and an optical design.
The out-of-plane degrees of freedom (piston, tip, and tilt) of each of the 492 segments in the Thirty Meter Telescope
primary mirror will be actively controlled using three actuators per segment and two edge sensors along each intersegment
gap. We address two important topics for this system: edge sensor design, and the correction of fabrication and
installation errors.
The primary mirror segments are passively constrained in the three lateral degrees of freedom. We evaluate the segment
lateral motions due to the changing gravity vector and temperature, using site temperature and wind data, thermal
modeling, and finite-element analysis.
Sensor fabrication and installation errors combined with these lateral motions will induce errors in the sensor readings.
We evaluate these errors for a capacitive sensor design as a function of dihedral angle sensitivity. We also describe
operational scenarios for using the Alignment and Phasing System to correct the sensor readings for errors associated
with fabrication and installation.
High-contrast imaging, particularly direct detection of extrasolar planets, is a major science driver for the next
generation of extremely large telescopes such as the segmented Thirty Meter Telescope. This goal requires
more than merely diffraction-limited imaging, but also attention to residual scattered light from wavefront errors
and diffraction effects at the contrast level of 10-8-10-9. Using a wave-optics simulation of adaptive optics
and a diffraction suppression system we investigate diffraction from the segmentation geometry, intersegment
gaps, obscuration by the secondary mirror and its supports. We find that the large obscurations pose a greater
challenge than the much smaller segment gaps. In addition the impact of wavefront errors from the primary
mirror, including segment alignment and figure errors, are analyzed. Segment-to-segment reflectivity variations
and residual segment figure error will be the dominant error contributors from the primary mirror. Strategies to
mitigate these errors are discussed.
Differential Image Motion Monitors (DIMMs) have become the industry standard for astronomical site characterization.
The calibration of DIMMs is generally considered to be routine, but we show that particular care
must be paid to this issue if high accuracy measurements are to be achieved. In a side by side comparison of
several DIMMs, we demonstrate that with proper calibration we can characterize the seeing to better than ±0.02
arcseconds.
KEYWORDS: Sensors, Electronics, Mirrors, Telescopes, Capacitors, Temperature metrology, Capacitance, Coating, Signal to noise ratio, Thirty Meter Telescope
The Thirty Meter Telescope project will design and build a thirty-meter diameter telescope for research in astronomy at optical and infrared wavelengths. The highly segmented primary mirror will use edge sensors to align and stabilize the relative piston, tip, and tilt degrees of freedom of the segments. We describe an edge sensor conceptual design and relate the sensor errors to the performance of the telescope as whole. We discuss the sensor calibration, installation, maintenance, and reliability.
The Thirty Meter Telescope (TMT) is a collaborative project between the California Institute of Technology
(CIT), the University of California (UC), the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy (AURA),
and the Association of Canadian Universities for Research in Astronomy (ACURA). The Alignment and Phasing
System (APS) for the Thirty Meter Telescope will be a Shack-Hartmann type camera that will provide a variety
of measurements for telescope alignment, including segment tip/tilt and piston, segment figure, secondary and
tertiary figure, and overall primary/secondary/tertiary alignment. The APS will be modeled after the Phasing
Camera System (PCS), which performed most, but not all, of these tasks for the Keck Telescopes. We describe
the functions of the APS, including a novel supplemental approach to measuring and adjusting the segment
figures, which treats the segment aberrations as global variables.
The James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) Coarse Phase Sensor utilizes Dispersed Hartmann Sensing (DHS)1 to measure the inter-segment piston errors of the primary mirror. The DHS technique was tested on the Keck Telescope. Two DHS optical components were built to mate with the Keck optical and mechanical interfaces. DHS images were acquired using 20 different primary mirror configurations. The mirror configurations consisted of random segment pistons applied to 18 of the 36 segments. The inter-segment piston errors ranged from phased (approximately 0 μm) to as large as ±25 μm. Two broadband exposures were taken for each primary mirror configuration: one for the DHS component situated at 0°, and one for the DHS component situated at 60°. Finally, a "closed-loop" DHS sensing and control experiment was performed. Sensing algorithms developed by both Adaptive Optics Associates (AOA) and the Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL)2 were applied to the collected DHS images. The inter-segment piston errors determined by the AOA and JPL algorithms were compared to the actual piston steps. The data clearly demonstrates that the DHS works quite well as an estimator of segment-to-segment piston errors using stellar sources.
High dynamic range coronagraphy targeted at discovering planets around nearby stars is often associated with monolithic, unobstructed aperture space telescopes. With the advent of extreme adaptive optics (ExAO) systems with thousands of sensing and correcting channels, the benefits of placing a near-infrared coronagraph on a large segmented mirror telescope become scientifically interesting. This is because increased aperture size produces a tremendous gain in achievable contrast at the same angular distance from a point source at Strehl ratios in excess of 90\% (and at lower Strehl ratios on future giant telescopes such as the Thirty Meter Telescope). We outline some of the design issues facing such a coronagraph, and model a band-limited coronagraph on an aperture with a Keck-like pupil. We examine the purely diffractive challenges facing the eXtreme AO Planetary Imager (XAOPI) given the Keck pupil geometry, notably its inter-segment gap spacing of 6~mm.
Classical Lyot coronagraphs, with hard-edged occulting stops, are not efficient enough at suppressing diffracted light, given XAOPI's scientific goal of imaging a young Jupiter at a separation as close as 0.15 arcseconds (4λD at H on Keck) from its parent star. With a 4000 channel ExAO system using an anti-aliased spatially-filtered wavefront sensor planned for XAOPI, we wish to keep diffracted light due to coronagraphic design at least as low as the noise floor set by AO system limitations. We study the band-limited Lyot coronagraph (BLC) as a baseline design instead of the classical design because of its efficient light suppression, as well as its analytical simplicity. We also develop ways of investigating tolerancing coronagraphic mask fabrication by utilizing the BLC design's mathematical tractability.
Dispersed Fringe Sensing (DFS) is an efficient and robust method for coarse phasing of segmented primary mirrors (from a quarter of a wavelength up to the depth of focus of a single segment, typically several tens of microns). Unlike phasing techniques currently used for ground-based segmented telescopes, DFS does not require the use of edge sensors to sense changes in the relative heights of adjacent segments; this makes it particularly well-suited to the phasing of space-borne segmented telescopes, such as the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST). In this work we validate DFS by using it to measure the pistons of the segments of one of the Keck telescopes; the results agree with those of the Shack-Hartmann based phasing scheme currently in use at Keck to within 2% over a range of initial piston errors of ±16 μm.
Phase Discontinuity Sensing (PDS) is one of two successful approaches to segment phasing currently in use at the Keck telescopes, but it has only very limited capture range. In this work, we describe and present numerical simulations of a broadband version of the current (narrowband) PDS algorithm which can extend the capture range from 0.4 μm to 40 μm. Like the original algorithm, the new broadband PDS algorithm (BPDS) does not require any special-purpose hardware, only a high-resolution area detector operating in the 2 - 3 μm range. The potential application of this algorithm to Extremely Large Telescopes is also discussed.
The wavefront sensors of adaptive optics systems of astronomical telescopes collect an abundance of high temporal resolution information about the distortions that are introduced to the incoming wavefront by atmospheric turbulence. Although this information can theoretically be used to analyze the turbulence conditions above the telescope at the given time, it is often discarded. The reason for this dismissal of seemingly useful information is usually the difficulty of separating atmospheric and instrumental contributions to the wavefront sensor measurements and thus of obtaining reliable estimates of the atmospheric turbulence conditions. In this paper we describe an effort to overcome these problems for wavefront sensor measurements taken by the Keck telescopes on Mauna Kea. We discuss different methods of deriving turbulence parameters, such as coherence length and time and the outer scale of turbulence, and present first results.
Ultra-high contrast imaging with giant segmented mirror telescopes will involve light levels of order 10-6 times that of the central diffraction spike or less. At these levels it is important to quantify accurately a variety of diffraction effects, including segmentation geometry, intersegment gaps, obscuration by the secondary mirror and its supports, and segment alignment and figure errors, among others. We describe an accurate method for performing such calculations and present preliminary results in the context of the California Extremely Large Telescope.
Curvature sensing, unlike some other wavefront sensing techniques, treats the boundary and interior of the aperture of interest in fundamentally different ways. This leads to complications for highly segmented telescopes (100 or more segments), as a significant fraction of points on the wavefront are simultaneously in the interior of the overall aperture and near a segment boundary. Although this effect may make it difficult to implement curvature sensing for adaptive optics on such telescopes, it may conversely be exploited for primary mirror segment alignment. We present numerical simulations which show that curvature methods should be an effective method for segment tip/tilt alignment on highly segmented mirrors.
The California Extremely Large Telescope, CELT, is a proposed 30-m telescope. Choosing the best possible site for CELT is essential in order to extract the best science from the observations and to reduce the complexity of the telescope. Site selection is therefore currently one of the most critical pacing items of the CELT project. In this paper, we first present selected results from a survey of the atmospheric transparency at optical and infrared wavelengths over the southwestern USA and northern Mexico using satellite data. Results of a similar study of South America have been reported elsewhere. These studies will serve as the pre-selection criterion of the sites at which we will perform on-site testing. We then describe the current status of on-site turbulence evaluation efforts and the future plans of the CELT site testing program.
The California Extremely Large Telescope (CELT) is a project to build a 30-meter diameter telescope for research in astronomy at visible and infrared wavelengths. The current optical design calls for a primary, secondary, and tertiary mirror with Ritchey-Chretién foci at two Nasmyth platforms. The primary mirror is a mosaic of 1080 actively-stabilized hexagonal segments. This paper summarizes a CELT report that describes a step-by-step procedure for aligning the many degrees of freedom of the CELT optics.
The current design concept for the California Extremely Large Telescope (CELT) includes 1080 segments in the primary mirror, with the out-of-plane degrees of freedom actively controlled. We construct the control matrix for this active control system, and describe its singular modes and sensor noise propagation. Data from the Keck telescopes are used to generate realistic estimates of the control system contributions to the CELT wavefront error and wavefront gradient error. Based on these estimates, control system noise will not significantly degrade either seeing-limited or diffraction-limited observations. The use of supplemental wavefront information for real-time control is therefore not necessary. We also comment briefly on control system bandwidth requirements and limitations.
We propose thin silicon wafers as the building blocks of highly segmented space telescope primary mirrors. Using embedded MEMS actuators operating at high bandwidth control, this technology can achieve diffraction-limited image quality in the 3-300 micron wavelength range. The use of silicon wafers as cryogenic mirror segments is carried forward considering a point design of a future FAIR-class NASA ORIGINS mission.
We recognize four major economic factors that justify a massive paradigm shift in the fabrication of ultralightweight space telescopes:
The precise process control and repeatability of silicon wafer manufacturing dramatically reduces the huge labor investment in mirror figuring experienced with Hubble Space Telescope.
Once developed, the incremental cost of additional space telescopes based upon proven silicon manufacturing techniques can be very small. We estimate the marginal cost of a 30m mirror when deploying a constellation can be as low as $36 million (Year 2002 dollars).
Federal R&D funding in the area of microelectromechanical devices and advanced 3-D silicon processing is certain to have far greater economic return than similar investments in other technologies, such as optical membrane technology.
The $300B per year silicon processing industry will continue to drive increased MEMS functionality, higher product yields, and lower cost. These advances will continue for decades.
The intention here is to present the case for the economic advantage of silicon as a highly functional optical substrate that can be fabricated using unparalleled industry experience with precision process control. We maintain that many architectures superior to the ASSiST concept presented here are possible, and hope that this effort prompts future thinking of the silicon wafer telescope paradigm
KEYWORDS: Sensors, Telescopes, Actuators, Mirrors, Large telescopes, Control systems, Wavefronts, Control systems design, Spatial frequencies, Wavefront sensors
We explore the issues in the control and alignment of the primary mirror of the proposed 30 meter California Extremely Large Telescope and other very large telescopes with segmented primaries (consisting of 1000 or more segments). We show that as the number of segments increases, the noise in the telescope active control system (ACS) increases, roughly as (root)n. This likely means that, for a thousand segment telescope like CELT, Keck-style capacitive sensors will not be able to adequately monitor the lowest spatial frequency degrees of freedom of the primary mirror, and will therefore have to be supplemented by a Shack-Hartmann-type wavefront sensor. However, in the case of segment phasing, which is governed by a `control matrix' similar to that of the ACS, the corresponding noise is virtually independent of n. It follows that reasonably straightforward extensions of current techniques should be adequate to phase the extremely large telescopes of the future.
We have developed and tested extensively three different methods for phasing the primary mirror segments of the Keck telescopes. Two of these, referred to as the broadband and narrowband algorithms respectively, are physical optics generalizations of the Shack-Hartmann technique. The third, Phase Discontinuity Sensing, is a physical optics generalization of curvature sensing. We evaluate and compare experimental results with these techniques with regard to capture range (as large as 30 micrometers ), run-to-run variation (as small as 6 nm), execution time (as short as twenty minutes), systematic errors, ease of implementation, and other factors, in the context of the Keck telescopes and also of future very large ground-based telescopes.
We describe a method for phasing segmented optics which makes use of a novel variation of the established technique of curvature sensing. In traditional curvature sensing, the difference between inside-of-focus and outside-of-focus images provides a direct measure of the curvature of a relatively smooth wavefront. We illustrate how this approach can be extended to enable one to measure and correct the discontinuous wavefronts associated with segmented mirrors. A detailed algorithm, based not on curvature measurement, but on correlation of the `difference image' with theoretical images or templates, is presented. In a series of tests of this `Phase Discontinuity Sensing' or PDS algorithm at the Keck 1 Telescope, at a wavelength of 3.3 microns, the RMS piston error (averaged over the 36 primary mirror segments) was repeatedly reduced from about 230 nm to 40 nm or less. Furthermore the PDS phasing solution was shown to be consistent with our previous `phasing camera' results (to within 66 nm RMS), providing strong independent confirmation of this earlier approach.
Because of limitations in the alignment process resulting from the telescope active control system and from atmospheric turbulence, the segments of the Keck Telescope primary mirror are never perfectly aligned. We describe a scheme for classifying these misalignments in terms of modes of the primary mirror. We describe these modes in terms of noise propagation, symmetry (specifically their resemblance to Zernike polynomials), and how discontinuous they are. Modal spectra of typical mirror misalignments are presented. The edge discontinuities which result from these misalignments are significantly smaller than what one would expect from random, uncorrelated tip/tilt errors of the same size, a fact which may have important implications for adaptive optics systems on segmented mirror telescopes.
The segmented design of the W. M. Keck Telescope primary mirror places several unique demands upon the alignment and adjustment of the telescope optics. These include: (1) careful determination of the optical figures of individual segments (to provide input data for warping harness adjustment), (2) control of the two tilt degrees of freedom for each of the thirty-six primary mirror segments, and (3) phasing or control of the piston degree of freedom for each of these segments. In addition, (4) the proper alignment of the secondary with respect to the primary, although it is a requirement common to monolithic and segmented telescopes alike, is a more subtle and complicated task for the latter because the optic axis of the primary is not readily defined. These four tasks are performed at Keck by the Phasing Camera System.
Astronomical observations are now taking place on the Keck I telescope on a regular basis. We summarize here the status of the Keck I and II optics, and the current wavefront and image quality of the Keck I telescope as measured by in-telescope optical tests. Shack-Hartmann measurements of the individual primary mirror segments yield 80% encircled energy diameters that vary from 0.31 to 0.60 arc seconds. Full width at half maximum measurements of direct segment images obtained on a night of excellent seeing varied from 0.32 to 0.51 arcsec, and the combined image was 0.42 arcsec.
We have installed a high-speed camera system at the Keck Telescope, to be used for studying and monitoring atmospheric seeing as well as for telescope diagnostic purposes. This instrument, which consists of a Dalsa camera with a 64 X 64 pixel CCD, a 4 Megabyte Epix frame grabber, and a 486 computer, records sequences of 1248 frames at 181 Hz and 0.2 arcsecond resolution. We note that the Keck Telescope, by virtue of its 10 meter baseline as well as its ability to separate images formed by any or all of its 36 primary mirror segments, is ideally suited to seeing studies, in particular to those involving relatively long baselines and aperture-aperture correlations of wavefront aberrations. We present power spectra for atmospheric wavefront tilts for the primary mirror segments. In general they show the power law frequency dependance expected on theoretical grounds. However the measured segment-to-segment correlations are systematically smaller than theory predicts by a significant factor. It is possible that this effect is a manifestation of a finite outer scale of turbulence.
We discuss issues in optimizing the design of adaptive optics and laser guide star systems for the Keck Telescope. The initial tip-tilt system will use Keck's chopping secondary mirror. We describe design constraints, choice of detector, and expected performance of this tip-tilt system as well as its sky coverage. The adaptive optics system is being optimized for wavelengths of 1 - 2.2 micrometers . We are studying adaptive optics concepts which use a wavefront sensor with varying numbers of subapertures, so as to respond to changing turbulence conditions. The goal is to be able to `gang together' groups of deformable mirror subapertures under software control, when conditions call for larger subapertures. We present performance predictions as a function of sky coverage and the number of deformable mirror degrees of freedom. We analyze the predicted brightness of several candidate laser guide star systems, as a function of laser power and pulse format. These predictions are used to examine the resulting Strehl as a function of observing wavelength. We discuss laser waste heat and thermal management issues, and conclude with an overview of instruments under design to take advantage of the Keck adaptive optics system.
Access to the requested content is limited to institutions that have purchased or subscribe to SPIE eBooks.
You are receiving this notice because your organization may not have SPIE eBooks access.*
*Shibboleth/Open Athens users─please
sign in
to access your institution's subscriptions.
To obtain this item, you may purchase the complete book in print or electronic format on
SPIE.org.
INSTITUTIONAL Select your institution to access the SPIE Digital Library.
PERSONAL Sign in with your SPIE account to access your personal subscriptions or to use specific features such as save to my library, sign up for alerts, save searches, etc.