This paper presents experimental studies on heterodyne Frequency Modulated Continuous Wave (FMCW) signal reception for different optical heterodyne configurations including internal and external mixing between an incoming signal and a local oscillator. Signals and potential noise sources from a fibered FMCW Mach-Zehnder Interferometer (FMCW MZI) are theoretically evaluated. These optical estimations (signal and noise) of various power spectral densities (PSD) are converted into electrical unities to be compared to the measurements.The PSD are validated by using a known alternating voltage with controlled frequency and amplitude. This validation is used to compare the experimental and theoretical detection limits of different FMCW photodetectors, including a Photonic Integrated Circuit (PIC) detector developed and produced at CEA. The detection limit achieved with this PIC module closely matches with the expected theoretical performances. It validates the optical and electronic architecture and the achievements of CEA’s design. The miniaturization of this operational detection module is underway. In the future, it will be located on a single chip alongside two Optical Phased Arrays (OPA), one for emission and the other for reception.
LiDAR sensors are key to ensure safety and efficiency of autonomous vehicles and mobile robotic systems. But current commercial LiDAR technologies cannot face the issues in terms of costs, reliability and form factors that are hindering widespread adoption. Steerlight, a CEA-Leti spin-off, develops a new generation of on-chip LiDARs that relies on Frequency Modulated Continuous Wave (FMCW) and Silicon Photonics. FMCW provides instantaneous depth and velocity acquisition while Silicon Photonics enables the integration of the optical and electronics functionalities on a single chip. This paper will first describe the proposed silicon photonics based architecture. Subsequently, various demonstrations will illustrate the roadmap towards miniature and scalable LiDARs. Such features will contribute to making a wide range of devices smarter and safer, beyond the automotive and robotics markets.
CEA aims at developing a compact 1550 nm Frequency Modulated Continuous Wave (FMCW) LiDAR on chip. In this paper, individual demonstrators, corresponding to three main components of a LiDAR (Light Distance And Ranging) system, are combined in a test bench: a FMCW laser source, an emission and reception Optical Phased Array (OPA) and an optical heterodyne detection module. Each component has been individually tested, but also evaluated in order to derive the system performance of a complete LiDAR. A test platform has been developed to calibrate an OPA fabricated at CEA platform, either in emission or in reception mode. The tested OPA includes 256 channels based on grating antennae, with 1.5 μm pitch and 256 thermo-optic phase shifters. More recently, this platform has been completed with a FMCW interferometer, where the FMCW LiDAR detection can be evaluated through a mixed propagation setup, composed of optical fibers and free space. Then, the OPA may be inserted into this setup. Therefore, the optical fiber FMCW interferometer has been optimized to detect the lowest signal (typically less than one hundred fW) and to estimate the signal-to-noise ratio (up to almost 30 dB) with low noise photodiodes. Performance has been compared to theoretical predictions. Then, our custom OPA is included inside this experimental setup in a free space propagation environment. The performance measurements extracted from the spectral analysis are in agreement with the expectations.
In order to produce a powerful, single and low divergence output beam for 3D sensing applications, integrated Optical Phased Arrays (OPA) must have a large number of closely spaced optical antennas. This high density leads to specific constraints in component design compared to devices for optical transceivers. Furthermore, OPA characterization requires significant adaptations compared to traditional photonic wafer level measurement systems. In this presentation, we will focus on some key components used in a large scale OPAs, describing specific challenges and solutions. We will show characterization results of single components as well as active beam-steering with OPA circuits using our modified wafer-scale prober setup.
An Optical Phased Array (OPA) is similar to a one dimensional (1D) dynamic diffraction array. The phase law of the emitters is numerically programmable and enables to form a beam, that point towards a targeted direction. OPAs have a high potential for a new generation of LiDAR (Light Detection and Ranging) systems, since they avoid mechanical beam scanning. For the development of such LiDAR, many characterizations are essential to optimize the OPA and to get a full control of their performance. To carry out these tests, CEA-Leti has developed a modular optical bench designed to characterize large scale 1D-OPAs in free space. This bench allows beam-forming calibration at various angles thanks to an optical setup based on far-field imaging in the Fourier plane. This set up directly analyses a field of view of 22° (-11°/+11°) and can rotate in the azimuthal plane of the OPA to cover angles ranging from -50° to +50°. The OPA board is mounted on an additional rotation stage to match the OPA beam output with the beam forming set-up optical axis. For practical use, the optical axis is parallel to the floor (i.e. to the optical table). Moreover, after calibration, additional options allow to switch the setup for practical operations, as the OPA use in real space, e.g. for aiming at a target. A Peltier and a regulation loop allow testing the OPA at various temperatures. Fast photodiodes have been implemented to measure the switching time between distinct angular positions. In this paper, we report data acquired with this setup on a 256 channels OPA operating at @1550 nm, that is based on grating antennas with 1.5 μm pitch and thermo-optic phase shifters.
Recent innovations in photonics and nanotechnology are now enabling terahertz (THz) research to be applied in many industrial fields such as homeland security, information and communications technology (ICT), biology and medical science, non-destructive tests or quality control of food and agricultural products. Still many challenges are to be addressed, the main one being to provide THz systems with sufficient signal to noise ratio when operated in real industrials conditions. In addition, cost is a key lock that hampers the spread of this technology but it is clear that cost-effective sources and detectors compatible with standard microelectronics will drive down the overall cost, and in particular will make THz imaging accessible for industrial use. In order to bring THz imaging to industry, Leti has been developing over the past decade complementary CMOS-compatible uncooled imaging 2D-array technologies: antenna-coupled bolometers and Field Effect Transistor detectors. In addition, CEATech built a test platform dedicated to the development of industrial prototypes of photonics technologies. In particular, in collaboration with i2S, this platform includes the TZCAM camera equipped with Leti’s 320×240 bolometric pixel array and gives access to a full industrial THz imaging chain that is essential for maturation of this emerging technology. This paper gives an overview of these developments and illustrates industrial applications with examples of uncooled THz imaging tests, e.g. opaque object 2D inspection or 3D tomography.
As for other imaging sensor markets, whatever is the technology, the commercial spread of terahertz (THz) cameras has to fulfil simultaneously the criteria of high sensitivity and low cost and SWAP (size, weight and power). Monolithic silicon-based 2D sensors integrated in uncooled THz real-time cameras are good candidates to meet these requirements. Over the past decade, LETI has been studying and developing such arrays with two complimentary technological approaches, i.e. antenna-coupled silicon bolometers and CMOS Field Effect Transistors (FET), both being compatible to standard silicon microelectronics processes. LETI has leveraged its know-how in thermal infrared bolometer sensors in developing a proprietary architecture for THz sensing. High technological maturity has been achieved as illustrated by the demonstration of fast scanning of large field of view and the recent birth of a commercial camera. In the FET-based THz field, recent works have been focused on innovative CMOS read-out-integrated circuit designs. The studied architectures take advantage of the large pixel pitch to enhance the flexibility and the sensitivity: an embedded in-pixel configurable signal processing chain dramatically reduces the noise. Video sequences at 100 frames per second using our 31x31 pixels 2D Focal Plane Arrays (FPA) have been achieved. The authors describe the present status of these developments and perspectives of performance evolutions are discussed. Several experimental imaging tests are also presented in order to illustrate the capabilities of these arrays to address industrial applications such as non-destructive testing (NDT), security or quality control of food.
This paper addresses the problem of critical operations in Degraded Visual Environment (DVE). DVE usually refer when the perception of a pilot is degraded by environmental factors, including the presence of obscurants from bad weather (e.g. fog, rain, snow) or accidental events (e.g. brownout, whiteout, smoke). Critical operations in DVE are a growing field of research as it is a cause of numerous fatal accidents for operational forces. Due to the lack of efficient sources and sensors in the Terahertz (THz) region, this domain has remained an unexplored part of the electromagnetic spectrum. Recently, the potential use of sub-Terahertz waves has been proposed to see through dense clouds of obscurants (e.g. sand, smoke) in DVE conditions. In order to conduct a performance evaluation of sub-Terahertz systems, several sub-terahertz systems (e.g. bolometer-array cameras, liquid helium cooled bolometers) were operated in artificial controlled DVE conditions at ONERA facilities. The purpose of this paper is to report field experiments results in controlled DVE conditions: attenuation measurements from 400 GHz to 700 GHz with a performance evaluation of different sub-Terahertz systems are presented.
F. Simoens, J. Meilhan, S. Gidon, G. Lasfargues, J. Lalanne Dera, J. L. Ouvrier-Buffet, S. Pocas, W. Rabaud, F. Guellec, B. Dupont, S. Martin, A. C. Simon
CEA-Leti has developed a monolithic large focal plane array bolometric technology optimized for 2D real-time imaging
in the terahertz range. Each pixel consists in a silicon microbolometer coupled to specific antennas and a resonant
quarter-wavelength cavity. First prototypes of imaging arrays have been designed and manufactured for optimized
sensing in the 1-3.5THz range where THz quantum cascade lasers are delivering high optical power. NEP in the order of
1 pW/sqrt(Hz) has been assessed at 2.5 THz.
This paper reports the steps of this development, starting from the pixel level, to an array associated monolithically to its
CMOS ROIC and finally a stand-alone camera. For each step, modeling, technological prototyping and experimental
characterizations are presented.
Terahertz uncooled antenna-coupled microbolometer focal plane arrays are being developed at CEA Leti for real time
THz imaging and sensing. This detector relies on LETI amorphous silicon uncooled infrared bolometer technology that
has been deeply modified to optimize sensitivity in the THz range. The main technological key lock of the pixel structure
is the quarter wavelength cavity that consists in a thick dielectric layer deposited over the metalized CMOS wafer; such
cavity improves significantly the optical coupling efficiency. Copper plugs connect the microbolometer level down to the
CMOS readout circuit (ROIC) upper metal pads through this thick dielectric cavity. This paper explains how we have
improved the copper vias technology and the challenges we have faced to customize the microbolometer while keeping a
monolithically above IC technology fully compatible with standard silicon processes. The results show a very good
operability and reproducibility of the contact through this thick oxide cavity. Due to these good results, we have been
able to characterize a very efficient THz absorption that enables real time imaging with high sensitivity in the 1-3 THz
range.
Fusion of multispectral images has been explored for many years for security and used in a number of commercial products. CEA-Leti and FBK have developed an innovative sensor technology that gathers monolithically on a unique focal plane arrays, pixels sensitive to radiation in three spectral ranges that are terahertz (THz), infrared (IR) and visible. This technology benefits of many assets for volume market: compactness, full CMOS compatibility on 200mm wafers, advanced functions of the CMOS read-out integrated circuit (ROIC), and operation at room temperature. The ROIC houses visible APS diodes while IR and THz detections are carried out by microbolometers collectively processed above the CMOS substrate. Standard IR bolometric microbridges (160x160 pixels) are surrounding antenna-coupled bolometers (32X32 pixels) built on a resonant cavity customized to THz sensing. This paper presents the different technological challenges achieved in this development and first electrical and sensitivity experimental tests.
F. Simoens, J. Meilhan, B. Delplanque, S. Gidon, G. Lasfargues, J. Lalanne Dera, D. T. Nguyen, J. L. Ouvrier-Buffet, S. Pocas, T. Maillou, O. Cathabard, S. Barbieri
Terahertz uncooled antenna-coupled microbolometer focal plane arrays are being developed at CEA-LETI for THz
imaging and sensing. This detector technology relies on amorphous silicon bolometer know-how and aims at opening the
way to real-time video rate 2D imaging, with potential low cost either in fabrication and in operation. First prototypes of
320x240 pixel arrays have been designed for 1-3 THz sensing. Sensors have been fabricated monolithically above
CMOS Integrated Circuits while applying only full Si standard silicon processes. We present the results of extensive
work of characterization and simulations made to estimate the sensitivity and spectral absorption of these prototypes.
Tests of latest real-time imaging with active illumination by QCLs are then reported while explosives samples were
placed in an optical set-up in reflection configuration.
Spectral signatures of solid materials in the THz range can provide spectroscopic information for chemical identification.
Previously we have demonstrated the absorption coefficient extraction by scanned imaging of QCL THz beams
attenuated through explosive samples. The detection was achieved by a unique pixel addressed within an uncooled
antenna-coupled microbolometer 160x120 array specifically designed for the 1-5 THz range. This detector technology
developed at CEA-LETI relies on amorphous silicon bolometer know-how and aims at opening the way to real-time
video rate, with potential low cost.
We report complementary tests of imaging in reflection configuration and the first tests of a second prototype where
320x240 bolometers are monolithically processed above a CMOS read-out circuit.
Uncooled antenna-coupled microbolometer focal plane arrays have been specifically tailored for optimum performance
in the 1-5 Terahertz range. A prototyping batch of 160 × 120 pixel chips has been designed and then processed above 8"
silicon substrates. An actively illuminated system has been experimentally tested where Quantum Cascade Lasers
(QCLs) are associated with the room-temperature operating 2D sensor. Whereas explosives samples were introduced in
the THz beam optical path, the profile of the modified beam has been sensed by a unique pixel translated via an X-Y
stage. These represent the first demonstration essays of explosive identification using our system.
Portability, low cost and fast acquisition rates are key features that a THz imaging system should satisfy for extended
commercialized applications. With regards to these features, the source - detector association of a THz Quantum
Cascade Laser (QCL) with an un-cooled micro-bolometer two-dimensional array looks promising for THz active
imaging. QCLs performance is rapidly improving, with higher operating temperatures and output powers recently
demonstrated. On the detector side, un-cooled micro-bolometer array opens the way to real-time video rate, with no
raster scanning and potential low cost.
In parallel to the development of room temperature micro-bolometer sensors specifically designed for the THz range, the
authors have characterized experimentally the sensitivity of CEA-LETI standard amorphous Silicon infrared microbolometers
illuminated by a 3THz QCL. The sensitivity of these existing sensors is then compared to the expected
sensitivity of the CEA-LETI upcoming THz sensors.
Thermal imaging market is today more and more attracted by systems with "instant-on" and low power consumption. "TECless" operation of uncooled microbolometer detectors, that is where no Peltier module is needed, is one of the major features required by the market. In order to fulfill this demand, LETI/SLIR is developing and optimizing a new IRCMOS architecture based on a differential reading implemented with current mirrors. This design simultaneously reduces focal plane temperature sensitivity and simplifies the detector driving. An IRCMOS prototype (320 × 240 with a pitch of 25 μm) has been designed, processed, and characterized. This paper presents an overall view of this new design and the latest characterization results of the prototype.
The Laboratoire Infrarouge (LIR) of the Laboratoire d'Electronique et de Technologie de l'Information (LETI) has been
involved in the development of microbolometers for over fifteen years. Two generations of technology have been
transferred to ULIS and LETI is still working to improve performances of low cost detectors. Simultaneously,
packaging still represents a significant part of detectors price. Reducing production costs would contribute to keep on
extending applications of uncooled IRFPA to high volume markets like automotive. Therefore LETI develops an onchip
packaging technology dedicated to microbolometers.
The efficiency of a micropackaging technology for microbolometers relies on two major technical specifications. First,
it must include an optical window with a high transmittance for the IR band, so as to maximize the detector absorption.
Secondly, in order to preserve the thermal insulation of the detector, the micropackaging must be hermetically closed to
maintain a vacuum level lower than 10-3mbar.
This paper presents an original microcap structure that enables the use of IR window materials as sealing layers to
maintain the expected vacuum level. The modelling and integration of an IR window suitable for this structure is also
presented. This zero level packaging technology is performed in a standard collective way, in continuation of
bolometers' technology. The CEA-LETI, MINATEC presents status of these developments concerning this innovating
technology including optical simulations results and SEM views of technical realizations.
Thermal imaging market is today more and more attracted by systems with "instant-on" and low power consumption.
Therefore the "TECless" operation of uncooled microbolometer detectors, that is where no Peltier module is needed, is
the major step to fulfill the market requirement. In order to fulfill this trend, LETI/SLIR is working on a new IRCMOS
architecture. This new design is based on a differential reading implemented with current mirrors that simultaneously
reduces focal plane temperature sensitivity and simplifies the detector driving. An IRCMOS prototype (320 x 240 with
a pitch of 25 &mgr;m) has been designed, processed, and characterized. This paper presents an overall view of this new
design and the preliminary characterization results got from this focal plane array.
LETI has been involved in IRFPA development since 1978, the design department (LETI/DCIS) has focused its work on new ROIC architecture since many years. The trend is to integrate advanced functions into the CMOS design in the aim of making cost efficient sensors.
The purpose of this paper is to present the latest developments of an Analog to Digital Converter embedded in a 25μm pixel.
The design is driven by several goals. It targets both long integration time and snapshot exposure, 100% of image frame time being available for integration. All pixels are integrating the IR signal at the same time. The IR signal is converted into digital by using a charge packet counter. High density 130nm CMOS allows to use many digital functions such as counting, memory and addressing.
This new structure has been applied to 25μm pitch bolometer sensors with a dedicated 320 x 240 IRCMOS circuit. Due to smart image processing in the CMOS, the bolometer architecture requirements may become very simple and low cost. The room temperature sensitivity and the DC offset are solved directly in the pixel. This FPA targets low NETD (<50mK), a variation of 80 Kelvin for the FPA temperature, 14 bits output at 50/60Hz video rate.
The development program of the flight model imaging camera for the PACS instrument on-board the Herschel
spacecraft is nearing completion. This camera has two channels covering the 60 to 210 microns wavelength
range. The focal plane of the short wavelength channel is made of a mosaic of 2×4 3-sides buttable bolometer
arrays (16×16 pixels each) for a total of 2048 pixels, while the long wavelength channel has a mosaic of 2 of the
same bolometer arrays for a total of 512 pixels. The 10 arrays have been fabricated, individually tested and
integrated in the photometer. They represent the first filled arrays of fully collectively built bolometers with
a cold multiplexed readout, allowing for a properly sampled coverage of the full instrument field of view. The
camera has been fully characterized and the ground calibration campaign will take place after its delivery to
the PACS consortium in mid 2006. The bolometers, working at a temperature of 300 mK, have a NEP close
to the BLIP limit and an optical bandwidth of 4 to 5 Hz that will permit the mapping of large sky areas.
This paper briefly presents the concept and technology of the detectors as well as the cryocooler and the warm
electronics. Then we focus on the performances of the integrated focal planes (responsivity, NEP, low frequency
noise, bandwidth).
Since 1997, CEA/SAP and CEA/LETI/SLIR have been developing monolithic Si bolometer arrays sensitive in the far infrared and submillimiter range for space observations. Two focal planes, 32x64 and 16x32 pixel arrays, are designed and manufactured for the PACS (Photodetector Array Camera and Spectrometer) instrument of the Herschel observatory, to be launched in 2007. The two arrays cover respectively the 60-130 μm and 130-210 μm ranges. The goal of these large bolometer arrays is to achieve observations in a Background limited NEP around 10-16 W.Hz-1/2. The detector physics and manufacture techniques of the different stages of these arrays are first presented. Then we describe the read-out and multiplexing cold electronics (300mK) that make possible several functional modes (temporal and fixed pattern noise reduction,...). The latest experimental measurements carried out with the complete detector system at the nominal temperature are presented and performances are discussed.
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