Ability to detect individual photons in the mid-ir is crucial for many astronomical applications and detector technology is the vital part of instrumentation for future space missions. The search for bio signatures through transiting exoplanet spectroscopy requires an array of detectors covering the spectral range of 2.8 to 20μm. Superconducting nanowire single-photon detectors (SNSPDs) are highly efficient and low-noise devices ideal for counting and observing low levels of photons. They have near-perfect quantum efficiency and can be combined into arrays for imaging. Here, we report on the development of 36-pixel mid-infrared SNSPD arrays. Detectors are based on optimised ultrathin NbN films, which are grown by both magnetron sputtering and atomic layer deposition (ALD) techniques. For characterisation we assembled a setup based on tuneable optical parametric oscillator (OPO) source to provide picosecond long pulses in the 1.5 to 10μm spectral region. This work provides an analysis of the electrical, optical, and temporal performance of individual pixels as well as information on pixel performance uniformity across the array.
In recent years, superconducting nanowire single-photon detectors (SNSPDs) have emerged as the state-of-the-art for photodetection in infrared regime. However, there are technical challenges still need addressing, such as high non-uniformity in SNSPD arrays, high polarization sensitivity, lack of cryogenic ROIC, and lack of high-performance devices in the mid-IR regime. During this talk, I will discuss our current work on overcoming some of these challenges.
We demonstrate two-photon interference and polarization entanglement at 2090 nm, constituting a crucial leap towards
free-space mid-infrared quantum communication systems in a spectral region with high atmospheric transparency and
reduced solar background.
Superconducting Nanowire Single photon Detectors (SNSPDs) offer unparalleled performance for IR photon counting, combining close to unity quantum efficiency, low intrinsic noise and ultrafast timing jitter. The ability of SNSPDs to count photons in mid-IR band up to 7 um wavelength opens up new possibilities in quantum optics, laser ranging, free space Quantum Key Distribution (QKD) and astronomy.
Here we report on development of mid-IR SNSPDs including device design, fabrication, optimisation of superconducting materials and characterisation. We present a characterisation setup covering 1.5 - 4.2 um spectral region based on tuneable optical parametric oscillator with picosecond long pulses. We then demonstrate the viability of mid infrared SNSPDs for a variety of applications and report the results from single photon light detection and ranging (LIDAR) experiment with 2.3 um photons. This work paves the way for future app in free space QKD, deep space communication and astronomy.
Single-photon counting has become an essential tool in quantum optics experiments, as well as remote sensing and life science applications. However conventional technologies such as single-photon avalanche diodes, as well as the availability of standard telecom optical components, has limited much of this work to the near infrared/telecom wavelength range. Superconducting nanowire single photon detectors (SNSPDs) have emerged in recent years as the gold standard in photon counting applications due to their low dark count rates, fast timing resolution and high efficiency [1]. SNSPDs have also demonstrated photon counting efficiency out to much greater wavelengths which enables us to explore new experimental possibilities in the mid-infrared [2].
In this work we design and fabricate mid-infrared SNSPDs and deploy them in a variety of photon counting experiments [3,4]. The devices are based on a NbTiN superconducting film integrated into an optical cavity to enhance absorption in the mid-infrared. We characterise these devices using an optical parametric oscillator, tuneable between 1.5 m and 4.2 m. We then deploy these in a proof-of-principle tabletop light detection and ranging (LIDAR) experiment at 2.3 m. LIDAR in the mid-infrared is attractive due to spectral regions of low atmospheric absorption and reduced solar background photon flux, when compared to telecom wavelengths. We also present results from a photon-pair source operating at 2 m. This is a key resource for extending quantum optics and quantum secure communications to the mid infrared domain. Pairs are generated using a custom lithium niobate crystal and detected using SNSPDs. We demonstrate two-photon interference and polarisation entanglement of the photon pairs at 2 m. This work opens the pathway to future development of quantum optics and quantum technologies in the mid-infrared spectral region.
References
[1] Gol’tsman et al Applied Physics Letters 79 705 (2001)
[2] Marisli et al Nano Letters 12 (9) 4799 (2012)
[3] G. G. Taylor et al Optics Express 26 (27) 38147 (2018)
[4] S. Prabhakar et al Science Advances 6 (13) eaay5195 (2019)
Quantum-enhanced optical technologies operating within the 2- to 2.5-μm spectral region have the potential to revolutionize emerging applications in communications, sensing, and metrology. Currently, sources of entangled photons are available at visible, near-infrared and telecom wavelengths but are strongly underdeveloped at longer wavelengths. Here, using custom-designed lithium niobate crystals for spontaneous parametric down-conversion and tailored superconducting nanowire single-photon detectors, we demonstrate two-photon interference and polarization-entangled photon pairs at 2090 nm. These results open the 2- to 2.5-μm mid-infrared window for the development of optical quantum technologies such as quantum key distribution in next-generation mid-infrared fiber communication systems and future Earth-to-satellite communications.
In this work we design, fabricate and characterize superconducting nanowire single photon detectors (SNSPDs) optimized for mid infrared operation. The mid infrared is of interest for free space applications due to lower solar background than at shorter wavelengths as well as low atmospheric absorption. We show a proof-of-principle LIDAR imaging experiment at 2.3µm showing the viability of using SNSPDs for a variety of applications in the mid infrared.
Superconducting nanowire single photon detectors (SNSPD) offer excellent performance for infrared single photon detection, combining high efficiency, low timing jitter, low dark count rates and high photon counting rates. Promising application areas for SNSPDs include quantum key distribution, space-to-ground communications and single photon remote sensing [1]. SNSPDs are typically made with ultrathin niobium nitride (NbN) films with thickness 4 nm and a superconducting transition temperature above 9 K. NbN offers high performance in the near infrared but their sensitivity drops at wavelengths beyond 2 um. There is growing interest in potential photon counting applications in the mid infrared domain (for example remote sensing of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere [2]). One way to overcome the wavelength limit in NbN SNSPDs is to use films with a lower superconducting energy gap [3]. Here we report on the study of SNSPDs fabricated with thin films of titanium nitride (TiN). We compare TiN films deposited by atomic layer deposition (ALD) and by magnetron sputtering. The TiN films range in thickness from 5 to 60 nm, with superconducting transition temperatures from ~1 K to 3.5 K. We have analyzed the films via transmission electron microscopy and variable angle spectroscopic ellipsometry. We characterize TiN SNSPDs performance from near to mid-infrared at wavelengths (1-4 um) with fast optical parametric oscillator (OPO) source. We compare the performance of TiN SNSPDs to devices based on other lower gap materials: MoSi, NbTiN, WSi.
[1] Natarajan et al Superconductor Science and Technology 25 063001 (2012)
[2] Abshire et al Laser Applications to Chemical, Security and Environmental Analysis, (Optical Society of America,
2008) paper LMA4
[3] Verma et al Applied Physics Letters 105 022602 (2014)
We describe the performance of detector modules containing silicon single photon avalanche photodiodes (SPADs) and superconducting nanowire single photon detectors (SNSPDs) to be used for intensity interferometry. The SPADs are mounted in fiber-coupled and free-space coupled packages. The SNSPDs are mounted in a small liquid helium cryostat coupled to single mode fiber optic cables which pass through a hermetic feed-through. The detectors are read out with microwave amplifiers and FPGA-based coincidence electronics. We present progress on measurements of intensity correlations from incoherent sources including gas-discharge lamps and stars with these detectors. From the measured laboratory performance of the correlation system, we estimate the sensitivity to intensity correlations from stars using commercial telescopes and larger existing research telescopes.
KEYWORDS: S band, Sensors, Superconductors, Optical fabrication, Tantalum, Optical testing, L band, Black bodies, Temperature metrology, Optical filters
We describe the geometry, architecture, dark- and optical performance of ultra-low-noise transition edge sensors as THz detectors for the SAFARI instrument. The TESs are fabricated from superconducting Mo/Au bilayers coupled to impedance-matched superconducting β-phase Ta thin-film absorbers. The detectors have phonon-limited dark noise equivalent powers of order 0.5 - 1.0 aW/ √ Hz and saturation powers of order 20 - 40 fW. The low temperature test configuration incorporating micro-machined backshorts is also described, and construction and typical performance characteristics for the optical load are shown. We report preliminary measurements of the optical performance of these TESs for two SAFARI bands; L-band at 110 − 210 μm and S-band 34 − 60 μm .
Here we report on the optical design and on the spectral-spatial characterisation of a small 16 pixel camera. The
prototype uses TES detectors with NEPs ~10-16 W/Hz0.5 which have been fabricated with near identical optical coupling
structures to mimic their much lower NEP counterparts (~10-19 W/Hz0.5). This modification, which is achieved through
changing only the pixel thermal conductance, G, has allowed us to perform spectral/spatial cryogenic testing using a
100mK ADR to view room temperature thermal sources. The measurements show a flat spectral response across the
waveband and minimal side lobe structure in the antenna patterns down to 30dB.
We have characterized the optical response of prototype detectors for SAFARI, the far-infrared imaging spectrometer for the SPICA satellite. SAFARI's three bolometer arrays will image a 2’×2’ field of view with spectral information over the wavelength range 34—210 μm. SAFARI requires extremely sensitive detectors (goal NEP ~ 0.2 aW/√Hz), with correspondingly low saturation powers (~5 fW), to take advantage of SPICA's cooled optics. We have constructed an ultra-low background optical test facility containing an internal cold black-body illuminator and have recently added an internal hot black-body source and a light-pipe for external illumination. We illustrate the performance of the test facility with results including spectral-response measurements. Based on an improved understanding of the optical throughput of the test facility we find an optical efficiency of 60% for prototype SAFARI detectors.
We have measured the optical response of detectors designed for SAFARI, the far-infrared imaging spectrometer for the SPICA satellite. To take advantage of SPICA's cooled optics, SAFARI’s three bolometer arrays are populated with extremely sensitive (NEP~2×10-19 W/√Hz) transition edge sensors with a transition temperature close to 100 mK. The extreme sensitivity and low saturation power (~4 fW) of SAFARI’s detectors present challenges to characterizing them. We have therefore built up an ultra-low background test facility with a cryogen-free high-capacity dilution refrigerator, paying careful attention to stray-light exclusion. Our use of a pulse-tube cooler to pre-cool the dilution refrigerator required that the SAFARI Detector System Test Facility provide a high degree electrical, magnetic, and mechanical isolation for the detectors. We have carefully characterized the performance of the test facility in terms of background power loading. The test facility has been designed to be flexible and easily reconfigurable with internal illuminators that allow us to characterize the optical response of the detectors. We describe the test facility and some of the steps we took to create an ultra-low background test environment. We have measured the optical response of two detectors designed for SAFARI’s short-wave wavelength band in combination with a spherical backshort and conical feedhorn. We find an overall optical efficiency of 40% for both, compared with an ideal-case predicted optical efficiency of 66%.
The Far-Infrared Fourier transform spectrometer instrument SAFARI-SPICA which will operate with cooled optics in a low-background space environment requires ultra-sensitive detector arrays with high optical coupling efficiencies over extremely wide bandwidths. In earlier papers we described the design, fabrication and performance of ultra-low-noise Transition Edge Sensors (TESs) operated close to 100mk having dark Noise Equivalent Powers (NEPs) of order 4 × 10−19W/√Hz close to the phonon noise limit and an improvement of two orders of magnitude over TESs for ground-based applications. Here we describe the design, fabrication and testing of 388-element arrays of MoAu TESs integrated with far-infrared absorbers and optical coupling structures in a geometry appropriate for the SAFARI L-band (110 − 210 μm). The measured performance shows intrinsic response time τ ~ 11ms and saturation powers of order 10 fW, and a dark noise equivalent powers of order 7 × 10−19W/√Hz. The 100 × 100μm2 MoAu TESs have transition temperatures of order 110mK and are coupled to 320×320μm2 thin-film β-phase Ta absorbers to provide impedance matching to the incoming fields. We describe results of dark tests (i.e without optical power) to determine intrinsic pixel characteristics and their uniformity, and measurements of the optical performance of representative pixels operated with flat back-shorts coupled to pyramidal horn arrays. The measured and modeled optical efficiency is dominated by the 95Ω sheet resistance of the Ta absorbers, indicating a clear route to achieve the required performance in these ultra-sensitive detectors.
The next generation of space missions targeting far-infrared wavelengths will require large-format arrays of extremely
sensitive detectors. The development of Transition Edge Sensor (TES) array technology is being developed for future
Far-Infrared (FIR) space applications such as the SAFARI instrument for SPICA where low-noise and high sensitivity is
required to achieve ambitious science goals.
In this paper we describe a modal analysis of multi-moded horn antennas feeding integrating cavities housing TES
detectors with superconducting film absorbers. In high sensitivity TES detector technology the ability to control the
electromagnetic and thermo-mechanical environment of the detector is critical. Simulating and understanding optical
behaviour of such detectors at far IR wavelengths is difficult and requires development of existing analysis tools.
The proposed modal approach offers a computationally efficient technique to describe the partial coherent response of
the full pixel in terms of optical efficiency and power leakage between pixels. Initial wok carried out as part of an ESA
technical research project on optical analysis is described and a prototype SAFARI pixel design is analyzed where the
optical coupling between the incoming field and the pixel containing horn, cavity with an air gap, and thin absorber layer
are all included in the model to allow a comprehensive optical characterization. The modal approach described is based
on the mode matching technique where the horn and cavity are described in the traditional way while a technique to
include the absorber was developed. Radiation leakage between pixels is also included making this a powerful analysis
tool.
SPICA is an infra-red (IR) telescope with a cryogenically cooled mirror (~5K) with three instruments on board, one of
which is SAFARI that is an imaging Fourier Transform Spectrometer (FTS) with three bands covering the wavelength of
34-210 μm. We develop transition edge sensors (TES) array for short wavelength band (34-60 μm) of SAFARI. These
are based on superconducting Ti/Au bilayer as TES bolometers with a Tc of about 105 mK and thin Ta film as IR
absorbers on suspended silicon nitride (SiN) membranes. These membranes are supported by long and narrow SiN legs
that act as weak thermal links between the TES and the bath. Previously an electrical noise equivalent power (NEP) of
4×10-19 W/√Hz was achieved for a single pixel of such detectors. As an intermediate step toward a full-size SAFARI
array (43×43), we fabricated several 8×9 detector arrays. Here we describe the design and the outcome of the dark and
optical tests of several of these devices. We achieved high yield (<93%) and high uniformity in terms of critical
temperature (<5%) and normal resistance (7%) across the arrays. The measured dark NEPs are as low as 5×10-19 W/√Hz
with a response time of about 1.4 ms at preferred operating bias point. The optical coupling is implemented using
pyramidal horns array on the top and hemispherical cavity behind the chip that gives a measured total optical coupling
efficiency of 30±7%.
KEYWORDS: Sensors, Waveguides, Wave propagation, Free space optics, Radio propagation, Space operations, Waveguide modes, Scattering, 3D modeling, Electromagnetism
The next generation of space missions targeting far-infrared bands will require large-format arrays of extremely lownoise
detectors. The development of Transition Edge Sensors (TES) array technology seems to be a viable solution for
future mm-wave to Far-Infrared (FIR) space applications where low noise and high sensitivity is required. In this paper
we concentrate on a key element for a high sensitivity TES detector array, that of the optical coupling between the
incoming electromagnetic field and the phonon system of the suspended membrane. An intermediate solution between
free space coupling and a single moded horn is where over-moded light pipes are used to concentrate energy onto multimoded
absorbers. We present a comparison of modeling techniques to analyze the optical efficiency of such light pipes
and their interaction with the front end optics and detector cavity.
The energy resolution of a detector is related to the figure of merit NEP×√τ which is proportional to the heat
capacity of the detector. Hot electron (cold electron) devices have much lower heat capacity than bolometers with
silicon nitride based thermal isolation. Traditional hot electron bolometers (HEB) require sub-micron fabrication
for use at submm wavelengths and it is difficult to simultaneously couple radiation and read out these devices.
The 2D electron gas (2DEG) in a semiconductor heterojunction effectively acts as a metal film with a thickness
of a few angstroms and a tunable density and electron mobility. We describe a HEB that uses a 2DEG as an
absorber and present simulations of optical coupling schemes for this type of detector including an antenna
coupled to a coplanar waveguide with distributed 2DEG absorbers.
We describe the optimization of transition edge superconducting
(TES) detectors for use in a far-infrared (FIR) Fourier transform spectrometer (FTS) mounted on a cryogenically cooled space-borne telescope (e.g. SPICA). The required noise equivalent power (NEP) of the detectors is approximately 10-19W/√Hz in order to be lower than the photon noise from astrophysical sources in octave wide bands in the FIR. The detector time constants must be less than 10 ms in order to allow fast scanning of the FTS mechanism. The detectors consist of superconducting thermometers suspended on thin legs of thermally isolating silicon nitride and operate at a temperature of approximately 100 mK. We present the design of the detectors, a proposed focal plane layout and optical coupling scheme and measurements of thermal conductance and time constant for low NEP prototype TES bolometers.
We describe a new type of terahertz (THz) detector for astronomical observation using a two-dimensional electron gas (2DEG) as the absorbing medium. The detection principle is based on the hot electron effect in 2DEGs. Electrons are heated by THz radiation and the electron temperature is read out by two symmetrical superconductor - 2DEG tunnelling junctions. Hot electrons are removed via tunnelling through a barrier into the superconducting contacts. The energy gap in the superconducting contacts prevents the escape of the colder, non-photoexcited electrons from the 2DEG. The high mobility 2DEG itself is created within AlGaAs/GaAs heterostructure with a single quantum well. In this paper we present low temperature DC measurements of 2DEG detectors, and measurements of the electron-phonon thermal conductivity of a 2DEG at 4.2 K and 300 mK as a function of electron temperature and magnetic field (in the 4.2 K case). From these measurements we estimate the noise equivalent power (NEP) of an element in a filled array of S-2DEG-S detectors at 4.2 K to be on the order of ≈
10-14W/√Hz with a response time of ≈ 1ns; at 300 mK, an NEP on the order of ≈
10-19W/√Hz and a response time of ≈ 0.1μs. Using measured parameters for the normal resistance of the S-2DEG-S contacts, we calculate the effect of using a voltage bias to cool the electrons in the absorber to significantly below a 300 mK base temperature. In this configuration, S-2DEG-S detectors can achieve sufficient sensitivity to detect individual THz photons.
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