Growing awareness of the adverse health effects of air pollution has increased the demand for reliable, sensitive, and mass-producible sensor systems. Photothermal interferometry has shown great promise for sensitive, selective, and miniaturized gas sensing solutions. This work describes the development of a macroscopic photothermal sensor system with a sensor head consisting of a low-cost, custom-made, and fiber-coupled Fabry–Pérot etalon. The sensor was tested with NO2, achieving a 3σ limit of detection (LOD) of approximately 370 ppbv (1 s). Exhibiting little drift, a LOD of 15 ppbv is achievable for 200 s integration time. Compensating for the excitation power, the normalized noise equivalent absorption was calculated to be 1.4×10−8 cm−1WHz. The sensor system is not limited to NO2 but can be used for any gas or aerosol species by exchanging the excitation laser source.
Needs for sensor miniaturization, versatile sensing solutions, and improved measurements’ performances in difficult operating environments have recently driven considerable research in optical fiber sensor for multiparameter measurements. Multiparameter sensors not only enable new sensors’ functionalities, but can also improve achievable measurement performances for some frequently measured parameters considerably. This study provides a review of work in the field of miniature fiber-optic sensors that allows independent and simultaneous measurements of two or more different physical or chemical parameters. Sensor designs and corresponding signal processing schemes are reviewed and compared.
The instantaneous size and rate of evaporation of pendant liquid droplets placed on the cleaved facet of a standard fiber are reconstructed based on reflected optical power. Using the evaporation dynamics, the relative contents of ethanol in ethanol-water binary mixtures are assessed with 1% precision and different blends of methanol in gasoline are properly recognized. The latter application, in particular, is significant for the use of alternative fuels in the automotive sector. Also, ten organic solvents are identified based on their evaporation from a fiber facet coated with a hydrophobic, selfassembled monolayer.
A combination of focused ion beam milling and chemical etching is proposed for the creation of Fabry-Pérot cavities in microwires. Both simple cavities and cantilevers are created on 15 μm-diameter microwires and characterized in temperature. The cantilever structure shows sensitivity to vibration and is capable of measuring frequencies in the range 1 Hz – 40 kHz.
This paper introduces an all-optical, fiber-optics vacuum sensor, which takes advantage of the thermo-optic effect within vanadium-co-doped fiber. This sensor utilizes a 980 nm pump-diode and a short section of highly absorbing vanadiumco- doped fiber produced by the flash vaporization process. The 980 nm source operates in pulse mode therefore the vanadium-co-doped fiber is periodically heated and self-cooled. The 980 nm pump-light is fully absorbed within the codoped fiber’s core and relaxed as a heat, which changes the fiber’s core refractive index. The heat-transfer between the heated fiber and surrounding gas depends on the gas pressure. Further, the doped-fiber is inserted into a Fabry-Perot interferometer which forms, in combination with a DFB laser diode at 1550 nm, a high coherence interferometer for optical path-length measurement. The time constant and absolute modulated optical path of the step response can be directly correlated with the gas pressure. The time constant is independent of the pump-diode’s optical power, while the absolute modulated optical path also depends on the pump-diode’s output of optical power and should thus be compensated. The vacuum sensor allows for a remote and fully dielectric measurement of the gas pressure and can be used in various industrial applications.
A cost-efficient plastic optical fiber (POF) system for unobtrusive monitoring of human vital signs is presented. The system is based on speckle interferometry. A laser diode is butt-coupled to the POF whose exit face projects speckle patterns onto a linear optical sensor array. Sequences of acquired speckle images are transformed into one-dimensional signals by using the phase-shifting method. The signals are analyzed by band-pass filtering and a Morlet-wavelet-based multiresolutional approach for the detection of cardiac and respiratory activities, respectively. The system is tested with 10 healthy nonhospitalized persons, lying supine on a mattress with the embedded POF. Experimental results are assessed statistically: precisions of 98.8%±1.5% and 97.9%±2.3% , sensitivities of 99.4%±0.6% and 95.3%±3% , and mean delays between interferometric detections and corresponding referential signals of 116.6±55.5 and 1299.2±437.3 ms for the heartbeat and respiration are obtained, respectively.
The monitoring of fluid evaporation from within fiber-optic micro-cells is proposed and demonstrated. The evaporation
process is accompanied by a pronounced temporary attenuation in the transmission of light through the micro-cell, by as
much as 50 dB. The temporal attenuation profiles observed for acetone, ethanol and hexane are distinctly different.
Temporal attenuation measurements can therefore allow for the identification of fluids based on their physical properties,
rather than their refractive indices. The evaporation of fluid mixtures is monitored as well.
Security, defense and sensing applications often require routing of optical fibers through constrained spaces.
Fibers or fiber cables must frequently be tightly matched or mounted onto structures having arbitrary shapes
or forms, which inevitably leads to requirement for tight fiber bends. In such case macro bend loss presents
one of the major concerns and limitations in practical applicability of optical fibers. Fibers with high bend
tolerance are therefore required in such environments. To date, significant works relating to the
understanding and improvement of bend-loss sensitivity have been carried on for single-mode fibers and
fiber systems. However, in security and defense applications, robust connectivity and installation
reliability issues often favor multimode fiber systems.
This paper presents the design and fabrication of semi-reflective in-fiber mirrors and their usage for the realization of
different miniature fiber sensors. The fabrication of a semi-reflective in-fiber mirror is based on the selective chemical
etching and splicing of standard single-mode fibers (SMF). The mirror's reflectance can be set precisely in between any
range between 0.1% and 9.5 %. The practical usability of the produced in-fiber mirrors was evaluated by the fabrication
of an in-line temperature sensor and evanescent field refractive index (RI) sensor. A temperature sensor is an intrinsic
type of in-line FPI, formed between an in-fiber mirror and a flat-cleaved optical fiber tip. As an example, a temperature
sensor that was optimized within a range from 0 to 100°C showed a temperature resolution better than 0.1 °C, and a
repeatability better than 0.2 °C. The evanescent RI sensor was created by the splicing of a small-diameter SMF between
two in-fiber mirrors and removing of the intermediate fiber-cladding by chemical etching. The effective index of the
fundamental mode depended on the surrounding-medium RI, which was interrogated by a spectrally-resolved technique.
A high sensitivity of 830 nm/RIU was measured at RI of 1.444.
This paper presents a highly effective micromachining process that can reform a section of an optical fiber into an allfiber,
complex photonic microstructure. The proposed process utilizes specially designed structure forming fibers that are
reformed into various complex shapes through selective etching. The control over the etching rate of the structureforming
fiber sections is achieved by the introduction of dopants, particularly phosphorus pentoxide, into silica glass
through the standard fiber manufacturing technology. Doping with appropriate dopants and dopant concentrations can be
used to create highly-preferential etchable areas within a fiber cross-section that can be selectively removed upon
exposing the fiber to the etching medium. The doped areas in the fiber cross-section can thus serve as sacrificial layers,
similar to those in the case of silicon MEMS production. Thus, the shaping of fiber devices can be achieved through the
design and fabrication of structure-forming fibers.
This paper presents an all-optically controlled, all-fiber optical path-length modulator. The presented system takes
advantage of the heating effect induced within vanadium-doped fiber through laser excitation. It can be applied in
various applications, for example in white-light interferometry. The system consists of a Michelson interferometer with
vanadium-doped fiber in one arm, a 980 nm excitation high-power laser diode, and 1310/1550 nm signal sources or
channels. Due to the spectral-absorption properties of vanadium ions in silica, the absorbed optical power emitted by the
980 nm source is mostly converted via a non-radiative relaxation process into heat within the vanadium-doped fiber. A
rise of fiber core temperature causes the fiber core refractive index to change and consequently, a change in the optical
path difference of the interferometer. The extinction laser diode operates in pulse mode for continuous scanning of the
white-light interferometer. The vanadium-doped fiber is, therefore, periodically heated and self-cooled. The optical path
difference of the scanning interferometer is simultaneously measured using a high-coherence source that provides the
needed reference trace. The achieved modulated optical path is over 150 μm, with a system time constant of below 1 s.
This all-optical configuration of the scanning interferometer allows for the remote and electrically passive control of the
optical path length differences in various fiber-optic systems. In particular, the proposed design would be suitable as an
interrogation system for various sensors, where an absolute optical path length variation/measurement is required.
This paper presents the design, fabrication process, and experimental evaluation of a high-sensitivity, all-silica, all-fiber,
micro machined Fabry-Perot strain-sensor. This sensor has a short Fabry-Perot cavity and thus allows for the application
of low-resolution spectral interrogation systems; in our case the commercial white light signal interrogator was used. The
fabrication process includes the design and production of special sensor-forming optical-fiber. This fiber includes a
central titanium-doped region, a phosphorus doped-ring surrounding a titanium doped region, and pure silica cladding in
order to produce the proposed sensor, two sections of sensor forming fiber are cleaved and etched in a HF/IPA solution.
The phosphorus-doped region etches at a considerably higher rate than the other fiber-sections, and thus creates a deep
gutter on the cleaved fibers frontal surface. The titanium-doped region etches at a rate that is, to some extent, higher than
the etching-rate of pure silica, and thus creates a slightly retracted surface relative to the pure silica fiber-cladding. The
etched fibers are then re-spliced to create an all-silica strain sensor in "double configuration", which has a section of
etched sensor-forming fiber on both sides. Thus this sensor has a long active length, whilst the length of the Fabry-Perot
cavity can be adjusted by a titanium-doping level. The central titanium-doped region also creates a waveguide structure
that is used to deliver light to the cavity through one of the fibers. The proposed fabrication process is cost-effective and
suitable for high-volume production. The greatest achievement of the depicted in-line strain sensor is the extension of its
active sensor length, which is more than 50 times greater than the sensor-cavity's length, and is thus approximately 50
times more sensitive to strain. This sensor also exhibits low-intrinsic temperature sensitivity.
This paper describes an efficient system for the interrogation of miniature all-fiber optic sensors, such as Fabry-Perot
interferometers or Bragg gratings that change their spectral characteristics within a narrow wavelength band, under the
influence of the measured parameter. The signal interrogation is performed by sweeping the laser diode's wavelength
over the narrow spectral band containing information about the measured parameter. The optical source consists of a
standard telecommunication distributed feedback laser diode with integrated elements for thermal control. The laser
diode's sensitivity to temperature is used to cyclically sweep the emitted wavelength for approximately 3 nm. This
allows for integration of FBGs and all-fiber FP interferometers with resonator lengths between 0.3 and 1 mm. The
interrogation system further includes a wavelength reference, which was formed by a Bragg gratings pair that was
temperature stabilized by the miniature Peltier element. The responses of both the optical sensor and the reference Bragg
gratings are simultaneously recorded in time during the temperature-induced wavelength sweep. These characteristics are
further digitally processed to eliminate any amplitude fluctuations and noise. The peaks in both recorded spectral
characteristics are then used to calculate the value of the measured parameter, like for example, strain or temperature.
There is, therefore, no need for additional wavelength measurements, which simplifies the presented system. The
proposed system is built from standard opto-electronic devices and is, therefore, simple, easy to manufacture and costeffective.
The system was tested using a 1 mm long sensing all-fiber Fabry-Perot interferometer for temperature
measurements, and standard Bragg gratings for temperature and strain sensing. The achieved temperature repeatability
was better than 0.5 °C, while the strain reparability proved to be about 10 με . The proposed system is thus appropriate
for various industrial and other applications, requiring cost-effective measurements with optical sensors.
The design and fabrication of an ultra-miniature all-glass pressure sensor with a diameter of 125 μm are presented. The
sensor consists of a thin flexible silica membrane fused on a capillary tube section, which is assembled at the tip of a
standard multimode fiber, thus forming a Fabry-Pérot air cavity whose length depends on applied pressure. Controlled
polishing steps including on-line tuning of the diaphragm thickness during the manufacturing process achieve good
repeatability and high sensitivity of the pressure sensor. The prototypes obtained with the described manufacturing
method could easily have a sensitivity of ~2 nm/kPa (~0.3 nm/mmHg) with a record, so far, of ~5 nm/kPa
(~0.7 nm/mmHg). The relatively simple fabrication technique using common and inexpensive equipments and materials
combined with the fact that such sensitive sensors with multimode fiber could be interrogated with low-cost commercial
interrogators (such as those using white-light interferometry) make this option very attractive for many applications
involving pressure measurement. The sensor significant size reduction is valuable especially for the medical field, for
applications such as minimally invasive patient health monitoring and diagnostics or small animals testing. Disposable
sensors with ultra-miniature size will certainly open the way for new medical diagnostics and therapies.
This paper presents a low cost fiber optic obstacle sensor. The detector is primarily developed for the use in applications
like the electric windows in vehicles. Sensor relies on flexible and all polymer design and it based on micro bend losses
in plastic optical fiber (POF). When designing the sensor high priority was given to the low cost components and
materials that are already in use in the automotive industry.
The durability tests were executed on the detector prototypes by continuously pressing on the same place of the sensing
area, with a force of 50 N, at temperatures near to the maximal operating temperature of the POF. The results show that
the obstacle is clearly detected after more than 10.000 continuous presses. The sensor solution presented in this paper can
be used in other applications where obstacle presence detecting is required like are electric doors on buses, other power
driven automatic doors, In-Circuit Testing devices (ICT), security sensors for windows, etc.
The fiber-optic strain sensor based on Fabry-Perot air cavity, made inside single-mode fiber by simple micromachining technique is presented. The sensor features near-linear response, low transmission loss, low temperature dependence, easy fabrication and it can be applied in quasi-distributed networks by using standard OTDR interrogation.
Road monitoring instrumentation is becoming an important part of traffic management systems. Axle detectors are part of this instrumentation and have been subject to considerable practical investigation in recent years.
This paper presents a new fiber optic vehicle axle detector for roadways. It is based on a fiber optic Michelson interferometer that is mounted directly into the road surface. The system is based on a minimum number of standard, cost effective, telecommunication fiber optic components. The detector is placed beneath the road surface and is not subjected to the wear and tear as in teh case of current commercially available axle detectors.
The detector operation was tracked for a period of one full year deployed in a freeway with an average frequency of 20,000 vehicles per day. During this period we did not observe any degradation of performance or malfunction of the proposed system. In addition, a fully dielectric design allowed for remote operation of the sensor via a long section of optical fiber.
We present distributed forward propagation sensor system that utilizes specially designed multimode fiber. The proposed system allows for direct detection of the optical signals that provide information on position and amplitude of microbend disturbances located down the sensing fiber.
Novel optical fiber sensor architecture has been developed. The actual element of the sensor is highly curved multimode fiber. However, the feed to the multimode fiber is through a single mode fiber to ensure that only the lowest order spatial mode is launched. Similarly the receiver is also coupled to the sensing element through a single mode fiber. The fundamental mode within graded index multimode fiber proves to be very insensitive to macrobends, if bend radius is larger than certain critical value. If bend radius is reduced below critical value the loss increases very rapidly and this allows for construction of relatively sensitive macrobend fiber optic sensor. In this paper we describe a quantitative theoretical model and a corresponding experimental investigation of the proposed structure. A proposal for simple and practical sensor design based on the proposed structure is presented. It is consisted of a miniature fiber optic coil that is deformed proportionally to the measured environmental parameter. We practically demonstrated sensitivities in the range of ΔI/Δx=130%/N and ΔI/ΔF= 1.1%/μm. Even higher sensitivities are possible by proper mechanical construction of the sensor element. The proposed structure can configured in variety of different distributed and quasi-distributed architectures and is suitable for embedding into the composite materials.
This paper presents a novel electrically passive level gauge suitable for use under industrial and other extreme conditions. The method exploits acoustics resonance of one- dimensional gas resonator. A low cost interferometric fiber- optic microphone is proposed as an acoustic pressure sensor and the acoustic power is delivered to the resonator by the acoustic waveguide. The distances over 120 m between the electrically passive sensor and the electrically active controller were experimentally demonstrated. The proposed method proves to be very robust and useful under heavy operating conditions.
This paper presents novel fully distributed forward propagating system, suitable for use with microbend sensors. The presented principle bases on selective launch of modes in specially designed multimode fiber called OFDA (Optical Fiber for Dispersion Addressing). At the input of the OFDA fiber short, pulse is launched in fundamental mode. In presence of microbend disturbance located down the sensing fiber, light couples from fundamental to higher order modes that propagate at different group velocity as fundamental mode. The position of measurand is then determined on the basis of time delay between pulse carried by fundamental mode and by pulse carried by higher order modes. The difference of group velocities is maximized by proper construction of refractive index of the OFDA fiber profile. Experimentally produced fibers exhibited difference of group velocities in range over 1%. This allows for easy reconstruction of position and amplitude of microbend deformations located down the sensing fiber.
This paper describes a novel optical fiber microbend sensor architecture which may be utilized in distributed and quasi distributed measurement. The actual sensor element is graded index multimode fiber coupled to the measurand field through the usual microbend inducing structures. However, the feed to the sensing section is through a single mode fiber spliced to the multimode fiber to ensure that only the lowest order spatial mode is launched. Similarly the receiver is also coupled to the sensing element through a single mode fiber. The single mode within multimode fiber propagates with minimal mode coupling with source to receiver losses of typically 0.5 dB for short sensor ranging to approximately 0.3dB per each additional kilometer of sensing fiber. The sensitivity of this structure to microbend induced losses has been thoroughly characterized. Typically the optical power loss for a given microbend structure and force is about three to six times higher in this architecture than for conventional fully mode filled microbend sensor. Further since the microbend operates only on the lowest order mode of the sensor fiber operation of the sensors does not depend on initial modal distribution in sensing fiber. The structure is also almost totally insensitive to the macrobend induced losses and allows a variety of novel designs in microbend inducing structures. Additionally, the use of spatial mode filters allows effective control over concatenation effects that are common in microbend sensors.
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