A new approach is described to image near-surface water side concentration fields at the air-water interface and wind waves at the Heidelberg Aeolotron wind-wave tank to study the transport mechanisms of air-sea gas exchange. The concentration fields are made visible by fluorescence imaging, stimulated by a 450 nm laser diode array, with 1-propylamine and pyranine. Light field imaging with seven cameras retrieves also the 3-D shape of the water surface. An additional laser line with 410 nm laser diodes is used to measure wind wave height directly and for precise camera alignment.
Thermographic imaging is applied to measure the shear flow at a wind driven water surface, an essential parameter to understand exchange of momentum, heat and mass between the atmosphere and the oceans. Only a thin line less than 1 mm thick perpendicular to the wind direction is heated with a penetration depth matched to the thickness of the shear layer at the water surface. With pulsed irradiation the shear can be estimated, while continuous irradiation is suitable to measure the orbital velocities of the wind waves. Motion fields and shear are computed by a generalized optical flow approach.
Light-field imaging is a research field with applicability in a variety of imaging areas including 3D cinema, entertainment, robotics, and any task requiring range estimation. In contrast to binocular or multi-view stereo approaches, capturing light fields means densely observing a target scene through a window of viewing directions. A principal benefit in light-field imaging for range computation is that one can eliminate the error-prone and computationally expensive process of establishing correspondence. The nearly continuous space of observation allows to compute highly accurate and dense depth maps free of matching. Here, we discuss how to structure the imaging system for optimal ranging over a defined volume - what we term a bounded frustum. We detail the process of designing the light-field setup, including practical issues such as camera footprint and component size influence the depth of field, lateral and range resolution. Both synthetic and real captured scenes are used to analyze the depth precision resulting from a design, and to show how unavoidable inaccuracies such as camera position and focal length variation limit depth precision. Finally, inaccuracies may be sufficiently well compensated through calibration and must be eliminated at the outset.
We describe a high-performance stereo camera system to capture image sequences with high temporal and spatial resolution for the evaluation of various image processing tasks. The system was primarily designed for complex outdoor and traffic scenes that frequently occur in the automotive industry, but is also suited for other applications. For this task the system is equipped with a very accurate inertial measurement unit and global positioning system, which provides exact camera movement and position data. The system is already in active use and has produced several terabytes of challenging image sequences which are partly available for download.
KEYWORDS: Modulation, Phase shift keying, Luminescence, Monte Carlo methods, Cameras, Signal to noise ratio, Fluorescence lifetime imaging, Line scan image sensors, Imaging systems, Signal processing
We present a theoretical multi-frequency multi-sampling frequency-domain fluorescence lifetime imaging (FLI)
technique, which determines fluorescence lifetime by measuring the phase delay and decrease of the modulation of
the emission relative to the excitation. Such a system could be realized with high-speed line-scan cameras using
more than 100000 frames per second. It is useful for the measurement of lifetimes in the microsecond range and
can be, e.g., used to measure oxygen concentrations with Ruthenium complexes. Typically 100 samples are used,
resulting in a temporal resolution of microsecond fluorescence lifetime measurement. By including frequency
components with frequencies much higher than the Nyquist criterion, the measurement of fluorescence lifetimes
much shorter than the sampling interval is possible. In order to optimize the SNR of the predict lifetimes, we
investigate the photon economy of our technique. Various ranges of the exposure time relative to the range
of modulation period and compositions of multiple frequencies have been studied. The presented approach is
validated by numerical simulations by Monte Carlo method.
We offer a formal investigation of the measurement principle of time-of-flight 3-D cameras using correlation of amplitude-modulated continuous-wave signals. These sensors can provide both depth maps and IR intensity pictures simultaneously and in real time. We examine the theory of the data acquisition in detail. The variance of the range measurements is derived in a concise way and we show that the computed range follows an offset normal distribution. The impact of quantization of that distribution is discussed. All theoretically investigated errors like the behavior of the variance, depth bias, saturation and quantization effects are supported by experimental results.
White light interferometry is a promising tool for industrial quality inspection. Since modern cameras offer a frame rate far above video-rate, the speed of these systems could be increased in order to fulfill the strong temporal constraints of inline inspection, i.e. the monitoring of every single part during the production process in just a few seconds. Its accuracy up to the sub-μm range enables even the detection of smallest defects like holes with a diameter of only a few microns and thus ensures a fast, contactless and high precision quality inspection. Due to the replacement of the mechanical phase shifting by a spatial phase shift, the commonly known white light interferometers could be extended to a one-shot line-profiling sensor. The main benefit of such a line-profiling technique is that also critical surfaces are
accessible that deviate strongly from a plane shape, like rotary welds on cylindrical parts. It can be shown that the accuracy of the proposed system is comparable to the accuracy of conventional white light interferometers even on rough surfaces. Other parameters like lateral resolution and measuring range strongly depend on the optical setup and will be discussed in the following sections.
In this contribution a novel technique for computing complex
motion involving heat transport processes will be presented. The
proposed technique is a local gradient based approach, combining
transport models with motion analysis. It allows for the
simultaneous estimation of both motion and parameter of an
underlying transport model. Since the analysis is based on thermal
image sequences, estimates are computed to a high temporal and
spatial resolution, limited only by the resolution and frame rate
of the employed IR camera. This novel technique was utilized on
exchange processes at the atmosphere/ocean boundary, where
significant parameters of heat transfer could be measured and a
transport model verified. Using the presented algorithms, surface
flows as well as convergences and divergences on air-water
interfaces can be measured accurately. Apart from applications in
oceanography and botany, relevant benefits of the proposed
technique to NDT will be presented. It is possible to compensate
for motion to reach accuracies much better than 1/10th of a pixel.
Through the direct estimation of locally resolved diffusivities in
materials, insights can be gained about defects present. By
estimating not only isotropic diffusion but also the whole matrix
of anisotropic diffusion, the technique is highly relevant to
measurements of composite materials.
An important process of plant physiology is the transpiration of plant leaves. It is actively controlled by pores (stomata) in the leaf and the governing feature for vital factors such as gas exchange and water transport affixed to which is the nutrient transport from the root to the shoot. Because of its importance, the transpiration and water transport in leaves have been extensively studied. However, current measurement techniques provide poor spatial and temporal resolution. With the use of one single low-NETD infrared camera important parameter of plant physiology such as transpiration rates, heat capacity per unit area of the leaf and the water flow velocity can be measured to high temporal and special resolution by techniques presented in this paper. The latent heat flux of a plant, which is directly proportional to the transpiration rate, can be measured with passive thermography. Here use is made of the linear relationship between the temperature difference between a non transpiring reference body and the transpiring leaf and the latent heat flux. From active thermography the heat capacity per unit area of the leaf can be measured. This method is termed active, because the response of the leaf temperature to an imposed energy flux is measured. Through the use of digital image processing techniques simultaneous measurements of the velocity field and temporal change of heated water parcels traveling through the leaf can be estimated from thermal image sequences.
The heat transfer between the ocean and the atmosphere is one of the most important parameters governing the global climate. Important parameters include the heat transfer velocity and the net heat flux as well as parameters of the underlying transport model. However, the net heat flux is hard to measure since processes take place in the thermal boundary layer, that is the topmost layer of the ocean less than 1 mm thick. Current techniques rely on three independent measurements of the constituent fluxes, the sensible heat flux, latent heat flux and radiative flux. They depend on indirect measurements of meteorological parameters and rely on a combination of data from different sensors using a number of heuristic assumptions. High relative errors and the need for long temporal averaging reduce the practicability of these techniques. In this paper a novel technique is presented that circumvents these drawbacks by directly measuring the net heat flux across the air-water interface with a single low-NETD infrared camera. A newly developed digital image processing technique allows to simultaneously estimating the surface velocity field and parameters of the temporal temperature change. In particular, this technique allows estimating the total derivative of the temperature with respect to time from a sequence of infrared images, together with error bounds on the estimates. This derivative can be used to compute the heat flux density and the heat transfer velocity, as well as the probability density function of the underlying surface renewal model. It is also possible to estimate the bulk-skin temperature difference given rise to by the net heat flux. Our technique has been successfully used in both laboratory measurements in the Heidelberg Aeolotron, as well as in field measurements in the equatorial pacific during the NOAA GasExII experiment this spring. The data show that heat flux measurements to an accuracy of better than 5% on a time scale of seconds are feasible.
A new optical instrument has been designed for combined slope/height measurements of the small-scale structure of the ocean surface. The compact and rugged sensor head contains two light sources and a short-base CCD stereo camera setup mounted 4 - 6 m above the water surface and looking straight down onto the water surface. It takes stereo images of the specular reflexes on the water surface representing slope zero-crossings in a sector of about 30 X 40 cm2. The height of the reflexes can be determined with a precision of about 2 mm. Experiments have been performed in the wind/wave flume of Delft Hydraulics, at the Scripps pier, and at the Noordwijk research platform in the North Sea. In these campaigns, a total of about half a million stereo images have been taken with continuous time series of up to 8 min at 30 frames/s. Some preliminary results are shown.
Optical techniques to measure the small-scale shape, i.e., the short wind waves of the ocean surface are theoretically reviewed. The well-known `shape from shading' and `shape from stereo' paradigms from computer vision are applied to a specular reflecting surface such as the ocean surface and used to study a variety of techniques with a common and elegant concept. The analysis shows that all techniques which have been used so far to take images of short wind waves such as Stilwell photography and various stereo techniques have significant deficiencies. Techniques based on light reflection (`shape from reflection') are basically only useful to derive wave slope statistics. A technique has been developed -- using an artificial light source to measure the 2-D probability density function of wave slope -- which is an extension of the successful sun glitter technique of Cox and Munk. Stereophotography is plagued by insufficient height resolution for small waves and, even more troublesome, by the problem that features seen in one of the images are not necessarily found in the other (correspondence problem) due to the specular nature of reflection at the water surface. Techniques based on light refraction (`shape from refraction') turn out to be most suitable to take wave slope images. They have been successfully used in the laboratory, but will be applied to the ocean in the near future.
A thorough understanding of the hydrodynamics of short ocean wave is important for interpreting measurements made by active microwave remote sensing instruments. However, conventional methods for studying the structure of a water surface are not capable of resolving the fine scale structure of the surface, especially in the ultra-gravity and capillary wavelengths. Optical instruments have the potential for resolving the fine-scale structure of the ocean surface, however, methods for calibrating these instruments and verifying the accuracy of the measurements have not been developed. In this paper we describe a multi-faceted approach for verifying the accuracy and calibration of an imaging wave slope gauge (ISG). The first step is a thorough theoretical analysis of the geometrical optics and photometry. A detailed discussion on the relationship between surface slope and observed pixel intensity is presented. This discussion includes second order effects which may tend to bias the results. Secondly, calibration objects formed from thin transparent Perspex sheets with known slope and height profiles are retrieved. The results show that the measurements of the water surface shape are accurate enough to compute 2-D wave number spectra.
A detailed study of 2-D wave number spectra of short water surface waves is presented. Using a refraction-based optical technique either the along-wind or the cross-wind slope is visualized in image sectors of up to 30 X 40 cm2. The resolution of the images is high enough (down to 1/3 mm) to resolve even the smallest capillary waves. The measurements were performed in the wind/wave facility of the IMST (University of Marseille, France) at 5 through 29 m fetch, the Delft wind wave flume (The Netherlands) from 6 to 100 m fetch, and the 4 m-diameter circular wind/wave facility of the Institute for Environmental Physics at the University of Heidelberg (Germany). A first preliminary analysis of the data is given. The angular dispersion of the waves is most sensitively influenced by the geometry of the facility, especially the width of the water channel. Therefore, it is hardly possible to extrapolate the measured angular dispersion of the waves to the ocean. The unidirectional and along-wind wave number spectra, however, show clear trends which allow for an extrapolation to the ocean. At high fetches and wind speeds, the spectral densities for the wave height are proportional to (kappa) -3.5 well into the capillary wave region until a sharp and almost wind speed independent cutoff occurs at (kappa) approximately equals 1100 m-1 ((lambda) approximately equals 0.6 cm). The increase of the spectral densities with friction velocity depends both on wave number and fetch. While the spectral density for small gravity waves depends only weakly on the friction velocity, it increases strongly at higher wave numbers. Generally, this steepness is smaller at higher fetches.
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