Measuring acoustic waves propagation in solid or fluid media is an important task in applications such as Structural Health Monitoring (SHM), seismology, oceanography, underwater acoustic communications and more. While there are quite a few acoustic sensors that are considered to be highly sensitive and broadband, such as geophones for seismic applications or hydrophones for underwater applications, they are all point sensors. Point sensors are limited since they cannot provide spatiotemporal measurement of propagating acoustic waves. In addition, their coverage volume is limited due to the attenuation of the acoustic waves in the medium. These limitations can be alleviated by using an array of acoustic sensors which can provide the required spatiotemporal measurement capability in addition to extended detection volume. This work describes the implementation of an underwater fiber-optic sensor array for ultrasonic (US) waves. To overcome the well-known trade-off between update rate and sensing fiber length a Coded Array Matched Interrogation (C-AMI) method was implemented. The method enabled an enhancement of the theoretical sampling rate by a factor of 54. The system successfully measured the propagation of an ultrasonic pulse with a carrier of 95kHz along a 20m long test pool.
The vast majority of medical endoscopes used today are based on optical fibers. Although most endoscopes are used to retrieve the image of the object at the distal end of the fiber endoscope, recent developments enable imaging the surrounding of the endoscope, such as swallowable tethered capsules. However, these capsules are much thicker than the optical fiber itself, and require mechanical rotations in order to scan the surrounding of the capsule. Hence, the ability to image the surrounding of a standard single-core fiber will be a major improvement to the current capabilities since it will allow for a much more convenient and possibly faster operation of the device, and will enable reaching places that are unreachable using the currently available technology. A mechanism that may enable such ability is the Rayleigh scattering that is present in standard optical fibers, and causes scattering of light that propagates inside the fiber in all directions. In this work we discuss two tasks we have recently investigated towards imaging the surrounding of a standard step-index multi-mode fiber. The first one is retrieving visual data that was input to the fiber based on Rayleigh side-scattered light using deep learning. The second one is focusing of Rayleigh side-scattered light using wave-front shaping, which is a possible means to overcome the very low intensity of Rayleigh scattering.
Quasi-distributed sensing, e.g. Quasi-Distributed Acoustic Sensing (Q-DAS), with optical fibers is commonly used for various applications. Its excellent performance is well known, however, it necessitates high sampling rates and expensive hardware for acquisition and processing. In this paper, we introduce a technique, based on Compressed Sensing (CS) theory, to locate discrete reflectors' along a sensing fiber with a smaller number of samples than required according to Nyquist criterion. The technique is based on the fact that the fiber profile consists of a limited number of discrete reflectors and significantly weaker reflections of Rayleigh back-scatterers, and thus can be approximated as a sparse signal. The task of reconstructing a sparse signal from a sub-Nyquist sampled signal using Orthogonal Matching Pursuit (OMP) is presented and tested experimentally.
Implementation of Optical Frequency Domain Reflectometry (OFDR) requires a source whose instantaneous frequency can be accurately scanned over a sufficiently wide frequency range. Achieving high repetition rates of accurate linear frequency sweeps can be rather challenging. In contrast, fast and accurate Sinusoidal Frequency Scan (SFS-OFDR) can be easily implemented via direct or external optical frequency modulation. While enabling high spatial resolution measurements of a sensing fiber at high scan rates, SFS-OFDR requires a special processing algorithm to convert the detector output to fiber profiles. Previous implementation of the algorithm involved O(N2) complexity and prohibited real time operation. In this work a novel algorithm for processing SFS-OFDR raw data is introduced. Based on two consecutive FFT operations, the algorithm produces the fiber profile with O(NlogN) operations and lends itself for real time applications. The new method was tested via simulation and experiment. It enabled static detection with high resolution (~3m) at 64km and highly sensitive dynamic detection (stretching amplitude of 70nm) near the end of a 64km sensing fiber with spatial resolution <10m and with 400Hz scan repetition rate.
KEYWORDS: Signal to noise ratio, Backscatter, Acoustics, Speckle, Sensing systems, Computer simulations, Reflectometry, Signal processing, Spatial resolution, Signal attenuation
Coherent fading noise (also known as speckle noise) affects the SNR and sensitivity of Distributed Acoustic Sensing (DAS) systems and makes them random processes of position and time. As in speckle noise, the statistical distribution of DAS SNR is particularly wide and its standard deviation (STD) roughly equals its mean (σSNR/〈SNR〉 ≈ 0.89). Trading resolution for SNR may improve the mean SNR but not necessarily narrow its distribution. Here a new approach to achieve both SNR improvement (by sacrificing resolution) and narrowing of the distribution is introduced. The method is based on acquiring high resolution complex backscatter profiles of the sensing fiber, using them to compute complex power profiles of the fiber which retain phase variation information and filtering of the power profiles. The approach is tested via a computer simulation and demonstrates distribution narrowing up to σSNR/〈SNR〉 < 0.2.
In Rayleigh-scattering-based Distributed Acoustic Sensing (DAS) an optical fiber is transformed into an array of thousands of 'virtual microphones'. This approach has gained tremendous popularity in recent years and is one of the most successful examples of a fiber-optic sensing method which made its way from the academia to the market. Despite the great amount of work done in this field, sensitivity, which is ones of the most critical parameters of any sensing technique, was rarely investigated in this context. In particular, little attention was given to its random characteristics. Without careful consideration of the random aspects of DAS, any attempt to specify its sensitivity or to compare between different DAS modalities is of limited value. Recently we introduced a new statistical parameter which defines DAS sensitivity and enables comparison between the performances of different DAS systems. In this paper we generalize the previous parameter and give a broader, simple and intuitive definition to DAS sensitivity. An important attribute of these parameters is that they can be easily extracted from the static backscatter profile of the sensing fiber. In the paper we derive the relation between DAS sensitivity and the static backscatter profile and present an experimental verification of this relation.
In this paper we study the SNR associated with acoustic detection in Rayleigh-based Distributed Acoustic Sensing
(DAS) systems. The study is focused on phase sensitive DAS due to its superiority in terms of linearity and sensitivity.
Since DAS is based on coherent interference of backscattered light from multiple scatterers it is prone to signal fading.
When left unresolved, the issue of signal fading renders the associated SNR randomly dependent on position and time.
Hence, its proper measurement and characterization requires statistical tools. Here such tools are introduced and a
methodology for finding the mean SNR and its distribution is implemented in both experiment and simulation. It is
shown that the distribution of the DAS-SNR can be obtained from the distribution of backscattered power in OTDR and
the mean DAS-SNR is proportional to the energy of the interrogation pulse.
The field of Optical Fiber Sensors (OFS) is gaining tremendous popularity in recent years. OFS natural immunity to electromagnetic disturbances, inherent biocompatibility and compactness making them highly attractive for ultrasound sensing. Moreover, their compatibility with photoacoustics can make them useful in situations where traditional piezoelectric probes are inadequate. However, the issue of multiplexing individual OFS into an array remains a challenging and costly task. In this work, we demonstrate a straightforward approach for multiplexing multiple broadband OFS for ultrasound sensing by exploiting most of the photoreceiver's bandwidth. The design is based on a recently developed system in which all sensing elements are connected to a single interrogator and to a single digitizing circuit. To mitigate aliasing, the system employs I/Q coherent detection. Synchronization of the sensor interrogation with the excitation enables very high repetition rates (kHz) making it ideal for applications where imaging of dynamic processes is desired.
Fiber ultrasound (US) sensing is gaining popularity in recent years. Unique characteristics such as immunity to electromagnetic interference and embedding compatibility makes them advantageous in many applications. Multiplexing of US fiber sensors, however, remains a challenge. Here, a new multiplexing approach is introduced. Based on Swept Frequency Interferometry (SFI), it enables practical multiplexing of tens of US sensors. For demonstration, a 3-sensors setup was excited by ultrasound tone-bursts. While using low driving voltage (2.5-10V vs. ~100-400V in similar studies) and not implementing acoustic-impedance optimization or optical-resonance sensitivity enhancement, the sensors detected the excitation with high SNR (~25dB).
Cumulative acoustically-induced phase modulation along the sensing fiber significantly degrades the performance of Optical Frequency Domain Reflectometry (OFDR) systems. Here we present a new method to mitigate this phenomenon using hybrid time-frequency interrogation and analysis. The method, which we term Gated-OFDR (G-OFDR), achieves remarkable results: ultra-sensitive dynamic sensing at z≈101km with 1.4m spatial resolution and acoustical sampling rate of 600Hz. As an example, the system detected and recorded, with high SNR, falls of two ~1g paperclips from height of ~20cm, on two fiber sections, 10m apart, at the end of the 101km fiber, without any crosstalk artifacts.
In traditional OFDR systems, the backscattered profile of a sensing fiber is inefficiently duplicated to the negative band of spectrum. In this work, we present a new OFDR design and algorithm that remove this redundancy and make use of negative beat frequencies. In contrary to conventional OFDR designs, it facilitates efficient use of the available system bandwidth and enables distributed sensing with the maximum allowable interrogation update-rate for a given fiber length. To enable the reconstruction of negative beat frequencies an I/Q type receiver is used. In this receiver, both the in-phase (I) and quadrature (Q) components of the backscatter field are detected. Following detection, both components are digitally combined to produce a complex backscatter signal. Accordingly, due to its asymmetric nature, the produced spectrum will not be corrupted by the appearance of negative beat-frequencies. Here, via a comprehensive computer simulation, we show that in contrast to conventional OFDR systems, I/Q OFDR can be operated at maximum interrogation update-rate for a given fiber length. In addition, we experimentally demonstrate, for the first time, the ability of I/Q OFDR to utilize negative beat-frequencies for long-range distributed sensing.
We introduce a new approach for multiplexing fiber-based ultrasound sensors using Optical Frequency Domain Reflectometry (OFDR). In the present demonstration of the method, each sensor was a short section of Polyimide-coated single-mode fiber. One end of the sensing fiber was pigtailed to a mirror and the other end was connected, via a fiber optic delay line, to a 1X4 fiber coupler. The multiplexing was enabled by using a different delay to each sensor. Ultrasonic excitation was performed by a 1MHz transducer which transmitted 4μs tone-bursts above the sensor array. The ultrasound waves generated optical phase variations in the fibers which were detected using the OFDR method. The ultrasound field at the sensors was successfully reconstructed without any noticeable cross-talk.
Osteoporosis is a widespread disease that has a catastrophic impact on patient's lives and overwhelming related healthcare costs. In recent works, we have developed a multi-spectral, frequency domain photoacoustic method for the evaluation of bone pathologies. This method has great advantages over pure ultrasonic or optical methods as it provides both molecular information from the bone absorption spectrum and bone mechanical status from the characteristics of the ultrasound propagation. These characteristics include both the Speed of Sound (SOS) and Broadband Ultrasonic Attenuation (BUA). To test the method's quantitative predictions, we have constructed a combined ultrasound and photoacoustic setup. Here, we experimentally present a dual modality system, and compares between the methods on bone samples in-vitro. The differences between the two modalities are shown to provide valuable insight into the bone structure and functional status.
In some OFDR implementations it is advantageous to use sinusoidal frequency tuning and to work in the linear range of the sinusoid. For a given scan frequency this limits the maximum length of the interrogated fiber. We propose a new method which allows exceedingly large delays while maintaining high scan rates. It is based on the observation that delay of half the scan period yields linearly frequency modulated (LFM) signals at the OFDR receiver. Using Fractional Fourier Transform (FrFT) for processing the raw data enables measurement of the z-dependent reflection at long ranges with high resolution and high scan rates.
A highly sensitive OFDR system capable of detecting and tracking fast acoustic wave propagation is described. The system was tested by dropping a screw (50gr) and a paperclip (<5gr) at one end of an 18m PVC pipe. The sensing fiber detected the wave propagation (v ≈ 1750m/s) along the entire pipe. Fast phase variations due to the impact of the screw led to a transient shift in the frequency of the interrogating light which corrupted the observed response. By tracking the beat frequencies of predefined reflectors and extracting their amplitudes significant improvement in the system's output was obtained.
We introduce a phase sensitive, dynamic and long range fiber-optic sensing system with fully distributed audio recording capabilities. The proposed system implements a recently developed OFDR design, which is based on double interrogation of a sensing fiber with equally-spaced discrete reflectors. In this paper, the ability of each sensing segment to operate as an independent, purely optical audio recorder with little cross-talk artifacts is demonstrated.
KEYWORDS: Bone, Acoustics, Phase measurement, Photoacoustic spectroscopy, Absorption, Ultrasonics, Ultrasonography, In vivo imaging, Transducers, Medicine
Osteoporosis is a widespread disorder, which has a catastrophic impact on patients lives and overwhelming related to healthcare costs. Recently, we proposed a multispectral photoacoustic technique for early detection of osteoporosis. Such technique has great advantages over pure ultrasonic or optical methods as it allows the deduction of both bone functionality from the bone absorption spectrum and bone resistance to fracture from the characteristics of the ultrasound propagation. We demonstrated the propagation of multiple acoustic modes in animal bones in-vitro. To further investigate the effects of multiple wavelength excitations and of induced osteoporosis on the PA signal a multispectral photoacoustic system is presented. The experimental investigation is based on measuring the interference of multiple acoustic modes. The performance of the system is evaluated and a simple two mode theoretical model is fitted to the measured phase signals. The results show that such PA technique is accurate and repeatable. Then a multiple wavelength excitation is tested. It is shown that the PA response due to different excitation wavelengths revels that absorption by the different bone constitutes has a profound effect on the mode generation. The PA response is measured in single wavelength before and after induced osteoporosis. Results show that induced osteoporosis alters the measured amplitude and phase in a consistent manner which allows the detection of the onset of osteoporosis. These results suggest that a complete characterization of the bone over a region of both acoustic and optical frequencies might be used as a powerful tool for in-vivo bone evaluation.
Osteoporosis is a major health problem worldwide, with healthcare costs of billions of dollars annually. The risk of fracture depends on the bone mineral density (measured in clinical practice) as well as on the bone microstructure and functional status. Since pure ultrasonic methods can measure bone strength and spectroscopic optical methods can provide valuable functional information, a hybrid multispectral photoacoustic technique can be of great value. We have developed such a system based on a tunable Ti:Sapph laser at 750 - 950 nm, followed by an acousto-optic modulator to generate photoacoustic signals with frequencies of 0.5 - 2.5 MHz. Another system was based on two directly modulated 830nm laser diodes. The systems were used to photoacoustically excite the proximal end of a rat tibia. Spectrum analyzer with tracking generator was used for measuring both the amplitude and the phase at the distal end. Scanning along both the optical wavelength as well as the acoustic frequency enables full mapping of the bone transfer function. Analyzing this function along the wavelength axis allows deducing the gross biochemical composition related to the bone functional and pathological state. Analyzing the amplitude and phase along the acoustic frequency axis yields the speed of sound dispersion and the broadband ultrasonic attenuation - both have shown clinical relevance.
Photoacoustic Thermal Diffusion Flowmetry (PA-TDF) utilizes photothermal heating and photoacoustic temperature
monitoring to measure the tissue heat clearance time constants from which blood velocity can be inferred. We extended
our study of PA-TDF to tissue-mimicking phantoms with vessels at various diameters, configurations and depths and
experimentally verified the relations between the estimated time constants and the vessels and the illuminating beam
dimensions. We also demonstrated, for the first time, depth-resolved PA-TDF measurement using tone-burst
photoacoustic excitation. The excitation utilized two fiber-coupled 830nm laser diodes, one induced slow temperature
oscillations and the other induced the PA excitation.
Photoacoustic Doppler flowmetry as well as Doppler ultrasound were performed in acoustic resolution regime on tubes
filled with flowing blood with indocyanine green (ICG) at different concentrations. The photoacoustic excitation utilized
a pair of directly-modulated fiber-coupled 830nm laser-diodes, modulated with either CW or tone-bursts for depthresolved
measurements.
The amplitude of the Doppler peak in photoacoustic Doppler measurements was found to be proportional to the ICG
concentration. Photoacoustic Doppler was measured in ICG at human safe concentrations, but not in whole blood.
Comparing the results between the two modalities implied that using a wavelength with higher optical absorption may
improve the photoacoustic signal in blood.
Dynamical sensing of strain via discrete reflectors interrogated by optical frequency domain reflectometry is described
and demonstrated experimentally. The benefits of using discrete reflectors rather than Rayleigh back-scattering for
dynamical measurements are elaborated. The method is tested in a sensor arm made from four discrete fiber segments of
different lengths and in a fiber with an array of ten fiber Bragg gratings with the same center wavelength and ~0.5%
reflection. Dynamical sensing of oscillatory strain at 100 Hz, with absolute stretching amplitude <100nm, at ~1km is
demonstrated.
Photoacoustic Doppler Flowmetry has several potential advantages over its purely acoustical counterpart. The key ones
are better inherent contrast and potential molecular information. It is therefore highly desired to continue to develop this
modality into a viable complementary tool alongside with Doppler Ultrasound flowmetry. Working towards this goal we
have constructed a Photoacoustic Doppler setup based on a combined pair of laser diodes at 830nm and a 10MHz
focused acoustical transducer. Using tone-burst intensity modulation, depth-resolved Doppler spectrograms of a phantom
vessel containing flowing suspension of carbon particles, were obtained. In order to investigate the conditions required
for successful photoacoustic Doppler measurement in blood a k-space photoacoustic simulation was performed. It tested
the photoacoustic response which is obtained for moving random spatial distributions of red blood cells and the effect of
several parameters, such as particles density, ultrasonic frequency and optical spot size.
The temperature dependence of photoacoustic generation is utilized for monitoring the temperature in flowing blood. A
phantom blood vessel is probed with photoacoustic (PA) excitation from a 830nm laser diode whose intensity is
sinusoidally modulated at ultrasound frequencies. A second laser diode at the same wavelength is used to photothermally
(PT) induce sinusoidal temperature fluctuations in the probed volume. The temperature oscillations lead to modulation
sidebands in the PA response. Measurement of the sidebands amplitude as a function of the PT modulation frequency,
for different flow rates, reveals a strong dependence of the PT modulation frequency response (MFR) on the flow rate.
This is attributed to the thermal properties of the volume under test, and in particular to the heat clearance rate, which is
strongly affected by the flow. A simplified lumped model based on the similarity between the system temporal behavior
and that of an RC circuit is used to analyze the resulting MFR's. With the addition of an appropriate calibration protocol
and by using multispectral PA and/or PT excitation the proposed approach can be used for simultaneous in-vivo
measurement of both flow and oxygenation level.
Stimulated Brillouin scattering (SBS) amplification of probe signals is highly polarization dependent. Maximum and
minimum gain values are associated with a pair of orthogonal states of polarization (SOP) at the fiber output. Since the
maximum gain is much higher than the minimum, the output probe SOP is pulled towards that of the maximum
amplification. Polarization pulling is restricted, however, by pump depletion. In this work, we propose, analyze and
demonstrate a method for enhanced SBS polarization pulling, using two orthogonal pumps: the one amplifies the probe
wave whereas the other attenuates it. The method provides the same polarization pulling as that of a single amplifying
pump, however it is considerably more tolerant to depletion.
Numerous methods have been proposed for multiplexing interferometric sensors into large scale arrays. Previously we
described a low loss polarimetric sensor array based on a concatenation of high-birefringence fiber. It was interrogated
by a wavelength scanning laser and its output was measured by a polarization analyzer. Here we demonstrate how the
same source and detection system can be used to interrogate a different sensor array with increased sensitivity: a cascade
of fiber-optic Fabry-Perot interferometers. The auxiliary interferometer, needed for obtaining a synchronized linear
frequency grid, is implemented "in-line" and does not require an additional detection and digitizing circuitry. The
proposed approach, therefore, constitutes a simple and modular sensor array interrogation scheme in which different
arrays of sensors with significantly different sensitivities can be interchanged according to circumstances.
We propose and experimentally demonstrate a new photoacoustic (PA) excitation and analysis method which achieves
an almost complete utilization of the available time and frequency windows. The method, which enables spectral and
spatial characterization of flow, is based on interleaving tens of tone-burst sequences at equally spaced frequencies.
Depending on the application, the interleaved signals can be generated by a single optical source or by multiple sources,
possibly at different wavelengths. Upon reception, the responses corresponding to the different tone-burst sequences are
spectrally de-multiplexed. As demonstrated in the current work, this method can be used to improve the SNR of PA
systems based on optical sources with limited peak power. Alternatively, if the interleaved excitation signals are at
different wavelengths, the PA responses can be used for multispectral characterization of the medium.
The polarization-related properties of stimulated Brillouin scattering (SBS) processes in long, randomly birefringent,
standard optical fibers are examined. Evolution equations for the pump and signal waves, in the presence of both
birefringence and SBS, are provided in Jones and Stokes spaces. It is shown that in the undepleted pump regime, the
amplification of the SBS signal wave is equivalent to that of a linear medium with polarization-dependent gain. The
process is associated with a pair of orthogonal states of polarizations (SOPs) of the signal wave, which undergo
maximum and minimum amplification. In long, standard fibers, the Jones vector of the probe SOP which corresponds to
maximum amplification is aligned with the complex conjugate of the pump wave Jones vector. The maximum and
minimum SBS gain coefficients in such fibers equal two-thirds and one-third of the gain coefficient that is predicted by
scalar theory, respectively. The large differential gain of the SBS process gives rise to an effective pulling of the
amplified Stokes probe wave SOP, towards that of maximum amplification. Lastly, Stokes wave pulses that are aligned
for maximum and minimum amplification experience different group delays, which manifest as polarization-related
distortions in SBS slow light setups.
We demonstrate the use of tone-burst excitation and time-gated spectral analysis for photoacoustic Doppler mapping of flow in an unperturbed vessel phantom and in a vessel with a spatially varying lumen. The method, which mimics pulsed Doppler ultrasound, enables simultaneous measurement of axial position and flow as well as complete characterization of the Doppler spectrum over a wide range of mean velocities (3.5 to 200 mm/s). To generate the required optical excitation, a continuous cw laser source followed by an external electro-optic modulator is used. Stenoses at various levels are emulated in a C-flex tube with a flowing suspension of micrometer-scale carbon particles. Two-dimensional maps of spectral content versus axial position at different points along the vessel and for various levels of perturbations demonstrate the potential use of the method for characterization of flow irregularities.
A new approach for implementing pulsed excitation enables
time-resolved characterization of flow, using the
photoacoustic Doppler effect. The method yields two-dimensional maps of the Doppler shift vs. axial position of flowing
absorbing particles. It takes advantage of the unique flexibility and accuracy of external modulation which offers
excellent control over the parameters of the pulsed optical excitation. The experimental setup comprised a CW tunable
laser source operating in the fiber optic communications band
(1510-1620nm) followed by an electro-optic modulator,
electronically driven by an arbitrary waveform generator. Using the technique the flow of a suspension of carbon
particles in a C-flex tube was measured over a wide range of velocities from 18 mm/sec up to 200mm/sec.
An improved layer peeling algorithm removes the constraint of equal segments length in a low-loss interferometric
sensor array. Consequently, the construction of the sensor array is greatly simplified while its performance remains
essentially unaffected. With unequal segments, the frequency response of the sensor array, which is based on a serial
concatenation of High Birefringence (HiBi) fibers, becomes effectively non-periodic. The original version of the layer
peeling algorithm was based on scanning one period of the frequency response and expanding it in the form of a Fourier
series. This led to decreased sensing performance since in practice it is virtually impossible to fabricate an array of
identical segments. In the non-periodic case, we show that broadening the scanning range, as well as windowing the
measured frequency dependent Stokes vector, prior to transforming it to the time-domain, greatly reduce sensing errors.
The new approach is demonstrated in a 14-segments array of HiBi fibers with a total length of 235m. Sinusoidal strain
modulation at up to 65Hz is applied to one of the segments. The improved layer peeling algorithm reveals the induced
signal in the perturbed segment with only little crosstalk in the signals extracted from the other segments.
A low-loss polarimetric sensor array, comprising a cascade of five polarization
maintaining fibers and a novel peeling algorithm, is experimentally demonstrated. With one
segment buried in a sand box, the array successfully detected pressure variations.
A novel time-dependent Mueller-like formalism is used to optimize performance in fiber-optic sensing scenarios, where the RF envelope of the interrogating signal is distorted by PMD/PDL.
The principal states of polarization of an embedded fiber-optic strain sensor were, for the first time, simultaneously measured together with the sensor response. Under applied stress, these principal states may change, resulting in a fluctuating readout.
The process of embedding an optical fiber into a host medium is often accompanied with high pressure and high temperature. It is expected, therefore, that during that process significant birefringence will be induced into the embedded fiber
The strain of an optical fiber, embedded in a composite laminated plate, was measured using radio frequency interferometry. While the response of a similar fiber glued to the plate was linear with the applied loading, the strain experienced by the embedded fiber exhibited significant fluctuations around the linear expected trend. This phenomenon is qualitatively described in terms of polarization mode dispersion associated with excess fiber birefringence, which was introduced during the manufacturing process of the laminated plate.
An embedded optical fiber was used to measure the strain in a composite laminate. Strain was deduced from the induced propagation delay as measured by radio-frequency optical interferometry. The output of the optical sensor was found to follow the actual integrated average strain with some fluctuations which are attributed to polarization effects.
Due to various imperfections, such as core ellipticity, as well as internal and external stresses, single mode fibers are birefringent. In general, the magnitude and orientation of the birefringence varies randomly along the fiber. This leads to the well known phenomena of polarization mode dispersion in fiber-optic communication and to special polarization effects such as polarization tuning in fiber lasers. Er-doped fibers tend to have larger birefringence and differential group delay than un-doped fibers. The larger values of the birefringence and its wavelength dependence can be used in the design of fiber laser. We show here measurements of the differential group delay and of the principal states of polarization, and their wavelength dependence, in short Er-doped fibers. In addition, we present the polarization characteristics for a round-trip propagation in a doped fiber. This last measurement can be used to analytically describe the tuning characteristics of a fiber laser with intra-cavity polarizer.
The subject of anomalous energy transfer in solid-state materials is reviewed. Two models are presented to describe deviations to the standard Inokuti-Hirayama model of energy transfer between ions in solid-state materials. We've considered the non-random distribution of donors and acceptors, and the spectral discrimination of sub-populations of donors and acceptors; all of these affect the observed time-dependent concentrations of excited donors and acceptors. Experimental evidence for the above in solid-state materials has been presented.
The standard expression for the excited state acceptor concentration in codoped solid-state materials is modified to include the possibility of non-radiative acceptor de-excitation. The chromium and thulium time-dependent emission in yttrium aluminum garnet (YAG) is then studied; evidence is given for the identification of the tendency for localized correlated chromium-thulium pairs in the crystalline material.
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